This document discusses wildfire suppression tactics. It explains that the main suppression tactics are direct attack, indirect attack, and aerial attack. Direct attack involves working close to the fire's edge, while indirect attack is completed from a distance by using control lines, firebreaks, and controlled burns. Aerial attack uses aircraft to drop water or retardants directly or indirectly on the fire. The document provides details on how to select and carry out each type of suppression tactic safely and effectively.

1. E-Learning for Wildfires
Professionals

2. Wildfire Response and Recovery
Part 2:
How to select appropriate
suppression tactics at wildfires
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3. This is the second part of the module on wildfire response and recovery
and will explain how to select appropriate suppression tactics. The
module will explain:
• Direct attack
• Indirect attack
• Aerial attack
• Using flame length as a guide
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Suppression tactics
Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)

4. The main types of suppression tactics that can be used at a wildfire
incident are:
Suppression plans for an individual incident may need to include a
combination of some, or all, of the above.
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DIRECT ATTACK INDIRECT ATTACK AERIAL ATTACK
Suppression tactics

5. The main types of suppression tactics that can be used at a wildfire
incident are:
Suppression plans for an individual incident may need to include a
combination of some, or all, of the above.
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DIRECT ATTACK INDIRECT ATTACK AERIAL ATTACK
Each of these types of attack will now be
explained in turn.
Suppression tactics

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DIRECT ATTACK
Suppression tactics

7. Direct attack is where personnel and resources
work at, or very close to, the burning edge of the
fire.
During direct attack, firefighters attack the fire
aggressively by using hand tools and beaters and/or
by applying water and/or retardants.
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DIRECT ATTACK
Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

8. Direct attack using hand tools, beaters and
knapsack sprayers can be a very successful
suppression tactic when deployed against
fires of low or moderate intensities (flame
lengths up to 1.5 metres). An effective tactic
can sometimes be the deployment of
firefighters working in small teams using
knapsack sprayers to reduce the intensity of
the flames and beaters to smother and
extinguish the flames (as pictured on the
right)
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Suppression tactics
Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)

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IMPORTANT: If flame
lengths are longer than
1.5 metres then direct
attack using hand tools is
not safe. Personnel should
relocate to safety zone if
this situation should arise
during direct attack.
Suppression tactics

10. Direct attack can be applied on different parts of the wildfire. The part
of the fire that is being attacked is used to define the specific type of
attack:
• Flank attack
• Head attack
• Tail attack
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Suppression tactics

11. Direct attack can be applied on different parts of the wildfire. The part
of the fire that is being attacked is used to define the specific type of
attack:
• Flank attack
• Head attack
• Tail attack
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Flank attack, head attack
and tail attack will now be
explained in turn…
Suppression tactics

12. Flank attack:
Attacking the fire along the flank
or both flanks simultaneously,
usually moving from the tail
towards the head.
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Suppression tactics

13. Head attack:
Attacking the head of the fire.
This attack method is usually
only successful on lower
intensity fires and when the
flanks of the fire have already
been extinguished. This type of
attack will be dangerous on
moderate to high intensity fires.
Crews should never be deployed
in front of the fire and/or in
unburned fuel.
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Suppression tactics

14. Tail attack:
Attacking the tail of the fire. A
tail attack may sometimes be
accompanied by a flank attack,
with direct attack crews starting
at the tail and moving along the
flanks.
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Suppression tactics

15. Remember to keep to the black area!
When using any direct attack tactic,
personnel should always approach and
attack the fire from the rear and, where
possible, from the black area. The black area
is the area that has already been burned by
the wildfire
This approach prevents personnel from
being deployed in unburnt fuel in front of an
advancing fire, which can be extremely
hazardous.
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Suppression tactics

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INDIRECT ATTACK
Suppression tactics

17. Indirect attack is where personnel and resources complete suppression
activities some distance away from the fire front. This type of attack can
be used on flames of any length, but it is often used for high and
extreme intensity fires where it is not safe to use direct attack.
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INDIRECT ATTACK
Suppression tactics

18. Indirect attack methods include:
• Using existing firebreaks or fuel breaks as control lines
• Creating new control lines
• Controlled burning
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Suppression tactics

19. Indirect attack methods include:
• Using existing firebreaks or fuel breaks as control lines
• Creating new control lines
• Controlled burning
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Suppression tactics
Control lines, firebreaks, fuel breaks and controlled burning will now be
explained in more detail…

20. Control lines
Control lines are constructed or
natural barriers, including treated
fire edges, which are used to
control a fire. They can be
constructed manually,
mechanically or by applying water
or retardants (which are called
wet lines).
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Source: Junta de Castilla y Leon (Spain)
Here is an example of a control line being used
to control a fire…
Suppression tactics

21. e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Here are some examples of manual construction of controls lines…
…using hand tools to remove heather …and using an excavator
Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

22. e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to
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Here are some examples of the construction of wet lines…
…using a tractor and slurry tank along a
forest track
…and using aircraft to drop retardent
Suppression tactics
Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)Source: Frederiksborg Fire and Rescue Service (Denmark)

23. When constructing control lines,
it is vital that the rate of
firespread is taken into account
so that there is sufficient time for
personnel to construct the
control line and leave the area
before the fire arrives.
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Suppression tactics
Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)

24. Firebreak
Firebreaks are areas where there is a
change or discontinuity in fuel that
will reduce the likelihood of
combustion, fire intensity and/or the
rate of firespread.
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Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

25. Fuel break
Fuel breaks are areas where
vegetation and all other
combustible materials have been
removed to expose the mineral
soil.
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Source: Junta de Castilla y Leon (Spain)
Suppression tactics

26. Important points about safety distances for using hand tools
Hand tools can be used for both direct and indirect attack. Most hand tools have the
potential to cause harm to personnel, so it is vitally important that personnel receive
appropriate training in how to use and maintain their hand tools.
If personnel are tasked with using hand tools, particularly edged tools such as
pulaskis or rake hoes, care should be taken to ensure that adequate space between
personnel is maintained. This helps to prevent injuries.
The spacing required to maintain safety will depend on the type of tool in use and
the task being undertaken and individual risk assessments should be completed for
each tool.
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Suppression tactics

27. However, a general rule of thumb is that the minimum working
distance for swinging tools is twice the length of the tool plus the length
of the arm, or approximately 3 metres.
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Suppression tactics
Minimum working distance is approximately 3 metres

28. Further information on control line construction can be found within:
• Scottish Government’s (2013) Fire and Rescue Service Wildfire
Operational Guidance
• NWCG Training Module on Suppression, Communication, and Mop-
up
The video on the following page may also be useful.
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Further information on Control Line Construction
Suppression tactics

29. Controlled burning
Controlled burning involves lighting controlled fires in front of an advancing fire in
order to assist in the suppression of the fire.
Controlled burns may be used for a number of purposes, including to:
• Widen any existing control lines
• Create new control lines
• Burn out fuel ahead of the advancing fire
• Alter fire behaviour
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Suppression tactics

30. e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Here are some examples of controlled burns…
…and in Northumberland (UK)…in Castilla y Leon (Spain)
Suppression tactics
Source: Junta de Castilla y Leon (Spain)

31. To carry out controlled burns, the following specialist personnel will be
required:
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Suppression tactics
Name of role Responsibilities
Burn Supervisor* A specialist with overall responsibility for managing the controlled burn. The burn supervisor should also
have some more specific responsibilities such as:
- Completing a risk assessment
- Implementing an appropriate safety protocol (i.e. LACES)
- Developing a burn plan
- Monitoring the burn plan and all personnel during the operation
Burners Specialists that are trained to use burners and to carry out controlled burns. They should be able to
complete test burns, assess and monitor fire behaviour and fire spread, continually monitor their safety and
the safety of others and adjust ignition patterns to achieve the desired flame length and rate of spread.
*Also sometimes referred to as a burn boss.

32. An appropriate holding team is also an essential requirement for all
controlled burns.
The holding team should include a number of personnel that are
tasked with securing the burn site and from preventing the fire
spreading outside the burn site. The number of personnel required will
depend on the size and complexity of the burn and the equipment
available for their use.
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Suppression tactics

33. This image shows a
controlled burn taking place
personnel performing the
required roles for controlled
burning
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Suppression tactics

34. This image shows a
controlled burn taking place
personnel performing the
required roles for controlled
burning
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Burn supervisor
Suppression tactics

35. This image shows a
controlled burn taking place
personnel performing the
required roles for controlled
burning
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Suppression tactics

36. This image shows a
controlled burn taking place
personnel performing the
required roles for controlled
burning
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Burner
Suppression tactics

37. This image shows a
controlled burn taking place
personnel performing the
required roles for controlled
burning
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Suppression tactics

38. This image shows a
controlled burn taking place
personnel performing the
required roles for controlled
burning
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Members of a
holding team
Suppression tactics

39. There are two distinct types of controlled burns, each of which has its
own benefits and limitations:
• Offensive burning
• Defensive burning
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Suppression tactics
Drip torches
are an
important tool
for controlled
burns…
Source: Junta de Castilla y Leon (Spain)

40. Defensive burning
Lighting a controlled fire to remove fuel in front of an advancing fire,
and extinguishing the controlled fire before the wildfire arrives. This
method is normally applied some distance from the fire front and
should be planned in good time.
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Suppression tactics

41. Offensive burning
Lighting a controlled fire and allowing it to burn into the approaching fire
front.
Offensive burns may be used for a number of reasons, including:
• To reduce fire intensity and the likelihood of spot fires
• To defend a control line, burning out fuel between the control line and
the advancing fire and ensuring the two fires meet some distance away
from the control line. This reduces the likelihood of spot fires breaching
the control line.
Offensive burning is a higher risk strategy that requires careful planning.
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Suppression tactics

42. Suitable control mechanisms are required to ensure that controlled burns
(both offensive and defensive) are used safely and appropriately at wildfire
incidents.
These control mechanisms should include the following:
• Controlled burns are carefully planned
• Controlled burns are only carried out by personnel that have received
appropriate training and have the relevant experience
• Excellent communications are established between the Incident Commander
and the burning team
• An appropriate holding team is in position prior to commencing the burn
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Suppression tactics

43. If controlled burns are to be considered as a potential suppression tactic for
wildfires, Fire and Rescue Services and those involved in suppressing wildfires
should develop appropriate Standard Operating Procedures that outline the
process and procedure for carrying out controlled burns. This will require
further research and investigation.
One source of further information is:
• Section 8B of the Scottish Government’s (2013) Fire and Rescue Service
Wildfire Operational Guidance
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Suppression tactics
Further information on Controlled Burning

44. It is also useful to look at Standard Operating Procedures and processes
that have been developed for controlled burning by other organisations.
Click here to view an example procedure for Controlled Burning from
Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service in the UK
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Further information on Controlled Burning
Suppression tactics

45. Parallel attack
Parallel attack is a specific type of indirect attack where control
lines are created along the flanks of the fire towards and around the
head of the fire. This suppression method is usually most effective
when performed using appropriate vehicles, such as tractors
pulling swipes or flails, or bulldozers.
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Suppression tactics

46. e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to
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AERIAL ATTACK
Suppression tactics

47. Aerial attack is the use of aircraft for direct or indirect attack:
• Direct aerial attack involves aircraft dropping water or fire retardants
onto the burning area
• Indirect aerial attack involves aircraft dropping water or fire
retardants in front of the burning area to form control lines or to
strengthen existing control lines
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AERIAL ATTACK
Suppression tactics

48. e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to
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Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

49. Aircraft and unmanned aircraft may also be used to support other tasks
or activities at wildfires:
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• Aerial reconnaissance of the
incident
• Moving personnel and
equipment to, or around, the
incident ground
Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

50. Aircraft can be used effectively to provide access to remote and otherwise
inaccessible areas.
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Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain) Source: Northumberland Fire and
Rescue Service (UK)
Source: Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency
Suppression tactics

51. At some wildfire incidents, the early deployment of aircraft may prevent a small
wildfire from developing into a much larger, more costly, and more destructive fire.
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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)
Suppression tactics

52. While deploying aircraft may bring many benefits, fire and rescue services should
also be aware that a number of factors will limit the effectiveness of aircraft at
wildfire incidents and/or can present significant hazards to the aircraft, and to
personnel on the ground, such as:
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Suppression tactics

53. While deploying aircraft may bring many benefits, fire and rescue services should
also be aware that a number of factors will limit the effectiveness of aircraft at
wildfire incidents and/or can present significant hazards to the aircraft, and to
personnel on the ground, such as:
• The terrain – steep slopes and mountainous areas make low-flying operations
more complex and hazardous
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Suppression tactics

54. While deploying aircraft may bring many benefits, fire and rescue services should
also be aware that a number of factors will limit the effectiveness of aircraft at
wildfire incidents and/or can present significant hazards to the aircraft, and to
personnel on the ground, such as:
• The terrain – steep slopes and mountainous areas make low-flying operations
more complex and hazardous
• Man-made structures – such as power lines and communication masts, can make
flying conditions and water/retardant dropping hazardous
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Suppression tactics

55. While deploying aircraft may bring many benefits, fire and rescue services should
also be aware that a number of factors will limit the effectiveness of aircraft at
wildfire incidents and/or can present significant hazards to the aircraft, and to
personnel on the ground, such as:
• The terrain – steep slopes and mountainous areas make low-flying operations
more complex and hazardous
• Man-made structures – such as power lines and communication masts, can make
flying conditions and water/retardant dropping hazardous
• Weather conditions – high winds may make flying conditions dangerous and/or
may influence the accuracy of water and retardant drops
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Suppression tactics

56. While deploying aircraft may bring many benefits, fire and rescue services should
also be aware that a number of factors will limit the effectiveness of aircraft at
wildfire incidents and/or can present significant hazards to the aircraft, and to
personnel on the ground, such as:
• The terrain – steep slopes and mountainous areas make low-flying operations
more complex and hazardous
• Man-made structures – such as power lines and communication masts, can make
flying conditions and water/retardant dropping hazardous
• Weather conditions – high winds may make flying conditions dangerous and/or
may influence the accuracy of water and retardant drops
• Smoke and darkness – some aircraft cannot fly at night or during very reduced
visibility
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Suppression tactics

57. Other factors limiting the effectiveness of aircraft can include:
• Vegetation – vegetation may prevent water or retardant drops from reaching the
intended location on the ground or fire
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Suppression tactics

58. Other factors limiting the effectiveness of aircraft can include:
• Vegetation – vegetation may prevent water or retardant drops from reaching the
intended location on the ground or fire
• Turnaround times for refilling aircraft with water/retardant and fuel may be
lengthy
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Suppression tactics

59. Other factors limiting the effectiveness of aircraft can include:
• Vegetation – vegetation may prevent water or retardant drops from reaching the
intended location on the ground or fire
• Turnaround times for refilling aircraft with water/retardant and fuel may be
lengthy
• Delayed attendance times of requested aircraft may lead to an escalation of the
incident, or other changes in the situation prior to their arrival at the incident
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Suppression tactics

60. Other factors limiting the effectiveness of aircraft can include:
• Vegetation – vegetation may prevent water or retardant drops from reaching the
intended location on the ground or fire
• Turnaround times for refilling aircraft with water/retardant and fuel may be
lengthy
• Delayed attendance times of requested aircraft may lead to an escalation of the
incident, or other changes in the situation prior to their arrival at the incident
• Flying debris and downwash – all helicopters produce rotor downwash, which
can cause flying debris and affect the rate of firespread
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Suppression tactics

61. Other factors limiting the effectiveness of aircraft can include:
• Vegetation – vegetation may prevent water or retardant drops from reaching the
intended location on the ground or fire
• Turnaround times for refilling aircraft with water/retardant and fuel may be
lengthy
• Delayed attendance times of requested aircraft may lead to an escalation of the
incident, or other changes in the situation prior to their arrival at the incident
• Flying debris and downwash – all helicopters produce rotor downwash, which
can cause flying debris and affect the rate of firespread
• Animal behaviour – the presence of aircraft may affect the behaviour of wild or
domestic animals in the area
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Suppression tactics

62. When deploying aerial resources to attack a fire or to provide
reconnaissance, coordination between ground and aerial resources is
vitally important for:
• Maintaining safety of all personnel and members of the public
• Ensuring effective and efficient actions to suppress the fire
Aerial resources are only effective if there is close coordination and joint
working wit ground resources.
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Suppression tactics

63. In order to establish close and effective
coordination between aerial and ground
resources, Incident Commanders should:
• Create an aerial sector
• Appoint an officer as aerial sector commander
• Provide ground support to the aerial sector
• Establish effective communications between the
aerial and ground sectors
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Suppression tactics
Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)

64. It is recommended that aerial sector commanders are given
responsibility for:
• Liaising with aircraft
• Relaying information from aircraft to the Incident Commander and
vice versa
• Briefing pilots and aircraft operators on their mission, objectives and
any hazards found at the incident location
• Provide regular briefings to the Incident Commander, pilots and
ground resources providing support to the aerial sector
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Suppression tactics

65. Aerial sector commanders should
also provide regular briefings to:
• Incident Commander
• Pilots and operators
• Ground resources providing
support to the aerial sector
• Personnel from all responding
agencies
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Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

66. Take off and landing areas
Take off and landing areas (TOLAs) for helicopters and other aircraft also need to be carefully
planned and managed.. There are a number of important considerations for TOLAS including:
• The landing area must be large enough to accommodate all aircraft that may need to use it
• The landing area should be on level ground that is dry and firm
• The surface of the landing area should be compact – sandy and gritty soil types should be avoided
• Whenever possible, the approach to the take-off and landing site should be free of flight hazards
such as high vegetation, overhead pylons and/or other man-made structures. Also, helicopters
prefer to land into the wind
• All debris should be cleared from the surrounding area, to reduce the likelihood of flying debris
that may cause injury to ground personnel or damage
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Suppression tactics

67. Other important considerations for TOLAs include:
• Vehicles should be parked a sufficient distance away from the
take-off and landing area
• Where possible, the site should be located near to a road or track
as this will assist in the provision of fuel and other essentials
• Firefighting equipment should be made ready but should be kept
outside of the take-off and landing area
• Where possible, the take-off and landing area should be close to a
water supply that can be used to replenish the aircraft’s
firefighting systems
• The location of the take-off and landing area should be provided
in the form of a grid reference to pilots and other personnel
• Cones and tape should not be used to mark or cordon off the take-
off and landing area, as these can represent a significant hazard to
aircraft
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Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

68. If aircraft are to be used at wildfire
incidents, firefighters should be
given specific training.
For example, firefighters need to be
trained in the correct way to
approach a helicopter at a landing
area
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Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)
Suppression tactics

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USING FLAME LENGTH AS A
GUIDE FOR SELECTING
SUPPRESSION TACTICS
Suppression tactics

70. We have now summarised the different types of
suppression tactics that can be used.
In summary, direct attack, indirect attack and aerial
attack all have their own advantages and disadvantages in
different circumstances. They also bring with them their
own specific hazards which need to be identified,
controlled and mitigated to ensure personnel are kept
safe.
To assist Incident Commanders in selecting the most
appropriate suppression tactics at wildfire incidents, some
fire and rescue services use flame length as a guide.
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An example of a guide
for selecting wildfire
suppression tactics
using flame length is
now provided.
Suppression tactics

71. e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to
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Fire intensity Flame length Tactic Primary suppression methods
Low 0 to 0.5 metres Direct attack  Using hand tools
 Applying water using knapsack sprayers
 Applying water using pressurised water systems
Moderate 0.5 to 1.5 metres Direct attack  Using hand tools supported by knapsack sprayers to reduce fire intensity
 Applying water using pressurised water systems
High 1.5 to 3.5 metres Direct attack  Applying water using pressurised water systems
 Using aerial operations
Indirect attack  Using control lines
 Making a parallel attack
 Applying retardants along control lines
 Defensive and offensive use of fire
 Using aerial operations
Extreme More than 3.5
metres
Direct attack  Using aerial operations
Indirect attack  Using control lines
 Defensive and offensive use of fire
 Using aerial operations
Using Flame
Length and
Fire Intensity
as a Guide
for Selecting
Suppression
Tactics at
Wildfires
Suppression tactics

72. Remember – even a small fire can be
dangerous and can cause injuries and
fatalities. Never let your guard down.
Always be prepared for changes.
The videos on the following pages provide
an important reminder of why it is
important to remember that all wildfires
have the potential to be dangerous and
destructive. Remember - all wildfires start
as very small fires!
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Suppression tactics

73. We hope you enjoyed this
part of the module!
Please visit the next part
which covers the recovery
phase of a wildfire incident.
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End of Wildfire Response and
Recovery : Part 2
Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)

74. This educational resource has been produced by the partners of the e-PPR Project (e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and
Response to Natural Disasters) with the support of the Erasmus+ programme.
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e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to
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