This document discusses various techniques for presenting numerical data, including incorporation into text, tables, and graphs. It describes the principles of effective data presentation, such as arranging data to create interest, presenting information compactly and concisely without losing details, and enabling further statistical analysis. Tables are presented as a common method, with examples of good and poor table design. The document outlines general principles for tables, such as numbering, titling, clear headings, and ordering data numerically or chronologically. It also differentiates between simple tables presenting a single data set and complex tables presenting multiple data sets. Frequency distribution tables are provided as a specific type of table that splits data into class intervals and shows the frequency of values within each interval.

1. Content:
Presentation of Data using various techniques - Numerical
methods

2. Introduction
Definition of Data
Any observation collected in respect of any characteristic or event is called data.
What is Information ?
• Raw data carry/convey little meaning, when it is considered alone.
• The data is minimized, processed/analyzed and then presented systematically. So that it
is converted into Information.
• It is important to note that data, that is not converted into information is of little value
for evaluation and planning and can not be used by those who are involved in decision
making.

3. Introduction
It is likely that there will be occasions when you have numerical information that you want
to include in your work,
• Example: figures and other statistics from secondary sources (such as books, journal
articles or newspaper reports); the results of experiments; or data
that you have collected and analyzed as part of a project or dissertation.
• Such information can be used to illustrate an argument or convey complex or detailed
information in a concise manner.
There are three main methods of presenting such information:
1. it can be incorporated into the main body of text;
2. it can be presented separately as a table; or
3. it can be used to construct a graph or chart.
• Determining which of these methods is the most appropriate depends upon the amount
of data you are dealing with and their complexity.

4. Principles of Data Presentation
The choice about whether to use text, tables or graphs requires careful consideration if you
are to ensure that your reader or audience understands your argument
and is not left struggling to interpret data that are poorly presented or in an inappropriate
format.
Principles of data presentation
(a) To arrange the data in such a way that it should create interest in the reader’s mind at
the first sight.
(b) To present the information in a compact and concise form without losing important
details.
(c) To present the data in a simple form so as to draw the conclusion directly by viewing at
the data.
(d) To present it in such away that it can help in further statistical analysis.

5. Presentation of Data

6. Tabulation
Tables are the devices, that are used to present the data in a simple form. It is probably
the first step before the data is used for analysis or interpretation.
General principals of designing tables
a) The tables should be numbered e.g. table 1, table 2 etc.
b) A title must be given to each table, which should be brief and self explanatory.
c) The headings of columns or rows should be clear and concise.
d) The data must be presented according to size or importance chronologically,
alphabetically, or geographically.
e) If percentages or averages are to be compared, they should be placed as close as
possible.
f) No table should be too large
g) Most of the people find a vertical arrangement better than a horizontal one because,
it is easier to scan the data from top to bottom than from left to right
h) Foot notes may be given, where necessary, providing explanatory notes or additional
information

7. Tabulation: Example
Examples of poor presentation
of data in tables
Poor example
This is a poor example because:
• the table lacks a title
• the source of the information is
not provided
• row titles overlap two lines
• each cell is bounded as if in a
spreadsheet
• the alphabetical listing of
regions results in a nonnumerical
ordering of data down the columns

8. Tabulation: Example
Better Example
This is a better example because:
• the table has title
• the source of the information is
provided
• row titles not in two lines
• each cell is not bounded as if in
a spreadsheet
• the alphabetical listing of regions results in a
numerical ordering of data down the
columns

9. Types of Tables
Types of tables
1) Simple tables :Measurements of single set are presented
2) Complex tables :Measurements of multiple sets are presented
Simple Table
When characteristics with values are presented in the form of table, it is known as simple
table (Example as shown in Table below)
Infant mortality rate of selected countries in 2004

10. Frequency distribution table
• In the frequency distribution table, the data is first split up into convenient groups
(class interval) and the number of items (frequency) which occur in each group is
shown in adjacent columns.
• Hence it is a table showing the frequency with which the values are distributed in
different groups or classes with some defined characteristics.
Rules for construction of frequency table
1)The class interval should not be too large or too small
2)The number of classes to be formed more than 8 and less than 15
3)The class interval should be equal and uniform through out the classification.
4) After construction of table, proper and clear heading should be given to it
5)The base or source of data should be mentioned with the pattern of analysis in
footnote at the end of table

11. Frequency distribution table
Examples of Frequency Distribution Table:

12. Frequency distribution table
Examples of Frequency Distribution Table:

13. References:
Kothari,C. R. Research methodology: methods & techniques. New Delhi: Wishwa
Prakashan, 2005. Book
Kumar, R. Research methodology: a step by step guide for beginers. New Delhi: SAGE
publications, 2011. Book
Architectural research methods / Linda N. Groat and David Wang
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproposal
https://research.berkeley.edu/writing-research-proposalsWong, Paul T. P
. How to Write a
Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University

14. Thank You