The document discusses the concepts of presupposition and entailment in language. Presuppositions are assumptions that speakers convey through their use of language, such as assuming information is already known by listeners. Entailments are logical implications that follow from what is directly stated. The key differences are that presuppositions do not change under negation, while sentences rather than speakers have entailments. Examples are provided to illustrate presuppositions conveyed through lexical items, structures, and types of verbs.

1. Speakers assume certain information is already known by their listeners. This is part of what is communicated but not said. Presuppositions and entailments Two aspects of what is communicated but not said

2. P resupposition: The information that a speaker assumes to be already known . (The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language, 1987) Implicit meanings conveyed by the speaker through the use of particular words. Ex: "The Cold War has ended" presupposes that the existence of the entities it refers to, in this case the "Cold War".

3. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions

4. Entailment is not a pragmatic concept. It is defined as what logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.

5. Speakers have presuppositions while sentences have entailments. Example: Susan’s sister bought two houses. This sentence presupposes that Susan exists and that she has a sister. This sentence has the entailments that Susan’s sister bought something; now she has 2 houses, a house, and other similar logical consequences. The entailments are communicated without being said and are not dependent on the speaker’s intention.

6. Presupposition : The relationship between two propositions. Mary’s cat is cute. (p) Mary has a cat. (q) p >>q = p presupposes q If the speaker denies the proposition p (NOT p), the presupposition q doesn’t change. Mary’s cat isn’t cute. (NOT p) Mary has a cat. (q) Not p >>q = Not p presupposes q

7. Presupposition : Constancy under negation: The presupposition of a statement will remain true even when that statement is negated.

8. Presupposition : Other examples of constancy under negation : p: Dave is angry because Jim crashed the car. q: Jim crashed the car p >> q NOT p: Dave isn’t angry because Jim crashed the car q: Jim crashed the car NOT p >> q

9. Presupposition : p: Mr. Singleton has resumed his habit of drinking stout q: Mr. Singleton had a habit of drinking stout. p >> q NOT p: Mr. Singleton hasn’t resumed his habit of drinking stout q: Mr. Singleton had a habit of drinking stout. NOT p >> q

10. Types of Presupposition Presuppositions are associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases and structures. These linguistic forms are considered as indicators of potential presupposition , which can only become actual presupposition in contexts with speakers.

14. 4- Structural presupposition: it is the assumption associated with the use of certain structures. - wh-question constructions. When did she travel to the USA? ( >> she travelled) Where did you buy the book? (>> you bought the book) The listener perceives that the information presented is necessarily true, or intended as true by the speaker..

15. 5- Non- factive presupposition: it is an assumption referred to something that is not true. For example, verbs like "dream", "imagine" and "pretend" are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true. I dreamed that I was rich . (>> I was not rich) We imagined that we were in London . (>> We were not in London)

17. From "Barclays Worldwide“, a four-monthly newsletter for clients of Barclays bank who live outside the UK. 1998 summer-issue, a passage about the introduction of the Euro, titled "Euro Update - Your questions answered". Britain may join in the lifetime of a future parliament the UK has not joined so far a carefully-expressed appreciation of the value of sterling

18. The projection problem In many cases presuppositions don’t survive to become the meaning of complex sentences. Why? They are “destroyed” by entailments The entailments are more powerful of presuppositions

23. Generally speaking, entailment is not a pragmatic concept (i.e. having to do with the speaker meaning ), but it is considered a purely logical concept .

25. The speaker will necessarily produce a very large number of background entailments but the speaker will indicate how these entailments are to be ordered How? by stress by using special structures So The hearer will understand which entailment is assumed to be more important for interpreting intended meaning

26. BOB ate three sandwiches. Bob ATE three sandwiches. Bob ate THREE sandwiches. Bob ate three SANDWICHES . What is the foreground entailment?

27. It-cleft construction/cleft sentences : a) It was TOM that did the work. b) It wasn’t ME who took your jacket.

28. Cleft sentences are used to help us focus on a particular part of the sentence and to emphasise what we want to say … Because there are two parts … they are called cleft (from the verb cleave) which means divided into two. Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we cannot use intonation for purposes of focus or emphasis, but they are also frequently used in speech. Cleft structures include the reason why, the thing that, the person/people who, the place where, the day when and what-clauses which are usually linked to the clause that we want to focus on with is or was . From: BBC World service

29. Examples of cleft sentences: I've come to discuss my future with you. The reason why I've come is to discuss my future with you. Your generosity impresses more than anything else. The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your generosity. The jewels are hidden under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road, Epping. The place where the jewels are hidden is under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road, Epping. Under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road is the place where the jewels are hidden.

30. Mary works harder than anybody else in this organisation. The person who works harder than anybody else in this organisation is Mary. Mary is the person in this organisation who works harder than anybody else. The Second World War ended on 7 May 1945 in Europe. The day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe was 7 May 1945 7 May 1945 was the day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe. We now need actions rather than words. What we now need are actions rather than words. Actions rather than words are what we now need.

31. I enjoyed the brilliant music most of all in the Ballet Frankfurt performance. What I enjoyed most in the Ballet Frankfurt performance was the brilliant music. The brilliant music was what I enjoyed most in the Ballet Frankfurt performance.