Electrochemistry deals with the transformation of chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. An electrochemical cell converts this energy and can be classified as either galvanic/voltaic, which converts chemical to electrical, or electrolytic, which converts electrical to chemical. The Nernst equation describes the relationship between cell potential and reaction conditions. Electrodes can be reference electrodes, which have a stable and reproducible potential, or indicator electrodes, which respond to specific ions. Common reference electrodes include calomel and silver-silver chloride, while common indicator electrodes include glass and ion-selective electrodes.
This document discusses potentiometry, which is a method of analysis that determines concentration by measuring potential difference between two electrodes without current flow. It describes the principle, reference electrodes like standard hydrogen electrode and saturated calomel electrode, indicator electrodes like glass electrode, and how potentiometric titration can determine the endpoint using methods like the normal titration curve, first derivative curve, and second derivative curve. Potentiometry provides advantages over visual indicator methods by not requiring indicators and allowing the same instrument to be used for different titrations.
Potentiometry is the field of electro-analytical chemistry in which potential is measured without current flow.
It is a method of analysis in which we determine the concentration of solute in solution and the potential difference between two electrodes.
This document provides an overview of electrochemistry and electrochemical cells. It defines electrochemistry as the study of the relationship between chemical transformations and electrical energy. It describes the two main types of electrochemical cells - electrolytic cells, which convert electrical to chemical energy, and galvanic/voltaic cells, which convert chemical to electrical energy. Key aspects of electrochemical cells covered include the electrodes, electrode charges, redox reactions, cell notation, salt bridges, cell potential, and reference electrodes. The document also discusses indicator electrodes, such as glass pH electrodes and potentiometric titration methods.
Potentiometry, voltamemtry and conductometryapeksha40
This document discusses various electroanalytical techniques used in clinical laboratories including potentiometry, voltammetry, conductometry, and coulometry. Potentiometry measures electrical potential differences using ion-selective electrodes or redox electrodes. Voltammetry and amperometry are sensitive techniques that apply a voltage to induce an electrochemical reaction and measure the resulting current. Conductometry measures how well ions conduct electricity. Coulometry determines the amount of an electroactive substance by measuring the charge required for its oxidation or reduction reaction. The NOVA-8 analyzer is highlighted as an example that can test for electrolytes, pH, hematocrit, and other clinical analytes using these electroanalytical methods.
Potentiometry is an electroanalytical technique that uses potentiometers to measure electrochemical potential. It involves using reference and indicator electrodes immersed in analyte solutions. The potential difference between the electrodes depends on ion activity/concentration based on the Nernst equation, allowing for quantitative analysis. A salt bridge containing a neutral salt maintains electrical neutrality between electrode half-cells. Common reference electrodes include silver/silver chloride and saturated calomel electrodes. Potentiometry is used for pH measurements and potentiometric titrations.
Potentiometry involves measuring the potential of electrochemical cells under conditions of no current flow. There are two types - direct potentiometry measures the potential of indicator electrodes related to analyte concentration, while indirect potentiometry involves measuring potential changes during titrations. A potentiometric cell consists of a reference electrode that maintains a constant potential, an indicator electrode whose potential varies with analyte concentration, and a salt bridge. The Nernst equation describes the relationship between electrode potential and analyte concentration or activity.
This document provides an introduction to electrochemical methods. It discusses that electrochemistry concerns the interaction of electrical and chemical effects. Five major electrochemical methods are described: potentiometry, conductometry, dielectrometry, voltammetry, and coulometry. Potentiometry involves measuring the potential between two electrodes using a high impedance voltmeter. Ion selective electrodes are discussed in detail, including their types, construction, advantages, limitations, and applications. Other topics covered include electrochemical cells, electrode potentials, the Nernst equation, electrochemical sensors, and potentiometry instrumentation and applications.
This document discusses potentiometry, which is a method of analysis that determines concentration by measuring potential difference between two electrodes without current flow. It describes the principle, reference electrodes like standard hydrogen electrode and saturated calomel electrode, indicator electrodes like glass electrode, and how potentiometric titration can determine the endpoint using methods like the normal titration curve, first derivative curve, and second derivative curve. Potentiometry provides advantages over visual indicator methods by not requiring indicators and allowing the same instrument to be used for different titrations.
Potentiometry is the field of electro-analytical chemistry in which potential is measured without current flow.
It is a method of analysis in which we determine the concentration of solute in solution and the potential difference between two electrodes.
This document provides an overview of electrochemistry and electrochemical cells. It defines electrochemistry as the study of the relationship between chemical transformations and electrical energy. It describes the two main types of electrochemical cells - electrolytic cells, which convert electrical to chemical energy, and galvanic/voltaic cells, which convert chemical to electrical energy. Key aspects of electrochemical cells covered include the electrodes, electrode charges, redox reactions, cell notation, salt bridges, cell potential, and reference electrodes. The document also discusses indicator electrodes, such as glass pH electrodes and potentiometric titration methods.
Potentiometry, voltamemtry and conductometryapeksha40
This document discusses various electroanalytical techniques used in clinical laboratories including potentiometry, voltammetry, conductometry, and coulometry. Potentiometry measures electrical potential differences using ion-selective electrodes or redox electrodes. Voltammetry and amperometry are sensitive techniques that apply a voltage to induce an electrochemical reaction and measure the resulting current. Conductometry measures how well ions conduct electricity. Coulometry determines the amount of an electroactive substance by measuring the charge required for its oxidation or reduction reaction. The NOVA-8 analyzer is highlighted as an example that can test for electrolytes, pH, hematocrit, and other clinical analytes using these electroanalytical methods.
Potentiometry is an electroanalytical technique that uses potentiometers to measure electrochemical potential. It involves using reference and indicator electrodes immersed in analyte solutions. The potential difference between the electrodes depends on ion activity/concentration based on the Nernst equation, allowing for quantitative analysis. A salt bridge containing a neutral salt maintains electrical neutrality between electrode half-cells. Common reference electrodes include silver/silver chloride and saturated calomel electrodes. Potentiometry is used for pH measurements and potentiometric titrations.
Potentiometry involves measuring the potential of electrochemical cells under conditions of no current flow. There are two types - direct potentiometry measures the potential of indicator electrodes related to analyte concentration, while indirect potentiometry involves measuring potential changes during titrations. A potentiometric cell consists of a reference electrode that maintains a constant potential, an indicator electrode whose potential varies with analyte concentration, and a salt bridge. The Nernst equation describes the relationship between electrode potential and analyte concentration or activity.
This document provides an introduction to electrochemical methods. It discusses that electrochemistry concerns the interaction of electrical and chemical effects. Five major electrochemical methods are described: potentiometry, conductometry, dielectrometry, voltammetry, and coulometry. Potentiometry involves measuring the potential between two electrodes using a high impedance voltmeter. Ion selective electrodes are discussed in detail, including their types, construction, advantages, limitations, and applications. Other topics covered include electrochemical cells, electrode potentials, the Nernst equation, electrochemical sensors, and potentiometry instrumentation and applications.
Potentiometry is a technique that measures the potential or electromotive force (emf) of a solution using an indicator electrode and a reference electrode. The potential difference between the two electrodes is dependent on factors like pH, gas concentration, or analyte ion activity in the solution. Common types of electrodes used include glass membrane pH electrodes, ion-selective electrodes with liquid or crystalline membranes, and gas-sensing electrodes. Potentiometric measurements can be carried out via direct measurement, standard addition, or titration to determine analyte concentration.
Potentiometry: Electrical potential, electrochemical cell, reference electrodes, indicator
electrodes, measurement of potential and Ph, construction and working of electrodes,
Potentiometric titrations, methods of detecting end point, Karl Fischer titration.
Instrumental methods ii and basics of electrochemistryJLoknathDora
1. The document discusses electrochemical cells and instrumentation based on electrochemical properties. It describes the basic components and reactions of galvanic and electrolytic cells.
2. Potentiometric titrations are discussed as a method to determine the equivalence point of a titration based on potential measurements using a reference and indicator electrode. Common indicator electrodes like quinhydrone and glass electrodes are described.
3. The principles of operation of quinhydrone and glass electrodes are summarized, including their Nernst equations and typical cell setups. Advantages and limitations of these indicator electrodes are also mentioned.
Electrochemistry deals with chemical reactions caused by electric currents or electric currents produced by chemical reactions. Galvanic cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy through redox reactions. Reversible cells like Daniel cells can undergo reactions in both directions while irreversible cells like zinc-silver cells cannot. Protective metal coatings through electroplating or electroless plating prevent corrosion by depositing a noble metal layer on a substrate.
This document discusses potentiometry and ion selective electrodes. It begins by explaining that potentiometry measures the potential of an electrochemical cell under static conditions without drawing current. An ion selective electrode uses a selective membrane to measure the concentration of specific ions based on the potential difference between an indicator and reference electrode. The document then describes different types of reference electrodes, indicator electrodes, and ion selective electrodes like glass membrane, solid state, liquid membrane and gas sensing electrodes. It concludes by discussing applications in clinical chemistry, environmental analysis and food processing and advantages like speed and low cost and limitations like precision and interference issues.
This document discusses various devices used in electrochemical analysis and auxiliary laboratory devices. It describes devices for electrochemical analysis including galvanic cells, electrodes, potentiometry, conductometry, and voltammetry. It also describes auxiliary devices such as centrifuges, shakers, homogenizers, vacuum pumps, thermostats, and air conditioning used to support electrochemical analysis and biomedical research.
This document discusses devices used in electrochemical analysis and auxiliary laboratory devices. It describes galvanic cells, electrodes, and potentiometric devices used to determine ionic composition. It also discusses auxiliary devices like centrifuges and thermostats. Conductometers and coulometers are described which measure conductivity by applying a low voltage alternating current between electrodes to avoid electrolysis. pH meters and glass electrodes are summarized which can directly measure pH by relating the electrode voltage to hydrogen ion concentration.
ESTIMATION OF THE RATE OF REACTION WILL BE DONE BASED ON THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REFERENCE AND INDICATOR ELECTRODE. THE POTENTIAL OF THE REFERENCE ELECTRODE IS STABLE WHERE AS THE POTENTIAL OF THE INDICATOR ELECTRODE VARIES WITH THE POTENTIAL OF THE SOLUTION IN WHICH IT IS PLACED
This document discusses the principles of potentiometric measurement. Potentiometry involves measuring the potential of an electrochemical cell under conditions of zero current flow, allowing the cell composition to remain unchanged. The potential is related to analyte concentration by the Nernst equation. Potentiometric cells consist of a sensing electrode and a reference electrode separated by a salt bridge. The potential difference between the electrodes corresponds to analyte levels. Common sensing electrodes include ion-selective electrodes and metallic electrodes like silver or copper that respond to specific ions.
This document discusses potentiometry, which is a method of measuring electrical potential or electromotive force (emf) of a solution using indicator and reference electrodes. It describes the components of a potentiometric cell including the reference electrode, salt bridge, analyte solution, and indicator electrode. Various types of reference electrodes like standard hydrogen, saturated calomel, and silver/silver chloride electrodes are explained. The document also covers different types of indicator electrodes like metallic electrodes, membrane electrodes, and gas sensing probes. Direct potentiometry and potentiometric titration techniques are briefly mentioned.
This document discusses potentiometry, which is a method of measuring electrical potential or emf to determine the concentration of ions in solution. It describes the components of a potentiometric cell including reference, indicator and salt bridge electrodes. Various types of reference electrodes like hydrogen, calomel and silver/silver chloride electrodes are explained. Indicator electrodes can be metallic, glass membrane, liquid membrane, crystalline membrane or gas sensing probes. Direct potentiometry and potentiometric titration methods for cation/anion analysis are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of the key concepts in electrochemistry including oxidation-reduction reactions, galvanic cells, standard reduction potentials, the Nernst equation, electrolysis, batteries, corrosion, and commercial electrolytic processes. It defines important terms, describes experimental set ups and calculations for electrochemical cells, and summarizes fundamental electrochemical principles and laws such as Faraday's laws of electrolysis.
Ion sensitive electrode & gas sensitive electrode..vishnupriya456
Ion-selective electrodes are sensors that convert the activity of specific ions in solution into an electrical potential. They are used to measure ion concentrations in analytical chemistry and research. The voltage produced depends on the ionic activity according to the Nernst equation. Ion-selective electrodes selectively bind target ions, allowing direct measurement of their activity. They consist of an ion-selective membrane that only allows the target ion to pass, producing a potential difference related to its concentration.
Potentiometry is an electroanalytical technique where the potential difference between two electrodes is measured under conditions of no current flow. It was invented in 1841 by Johann Christian Poggendorff using a slide-wire potentiometer. A potentiometric cell consists of a reference electrode with a known potential and an indicator electrode, whose potential changes depending on the analyte concentration. The potential difference between the electrodes is measured to determine the analyte concentration. Common applications of potentiometry include titrations, analysis of pollutants, drugs, foods, and more.
Potentiometric titration uses a potentiometer to determine the concentration of an analyte in solution. A potentiometer consists of an indicator electrode and a reference electrode placed in the solution. The potential difference between the electrodes is measured as titrant is added. When the endpoint of the titration is reached, there is an abrupt change in the measured potential that can be used to calculate the concentration of analyte. Potentiometric titration is a common volumetric technique used in electroanalytical chemistry.
Electrochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that produce electricity and electrical energy's ability to cause non-spontaneous reactions. There are two types of electrochemical cells: galvanic cells that convert chemical energy to electrical energy, and electrolytic cells that use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous reactions. Galvanic cells contain a spontaneous redox reaction like in Daniel cells where zinc oxidizes and copper reduces. Electrolytic cells use an external voltage to force nonspontaneous redox reactions. Standard electrode potentials allow prediction of reaction spontaneity based on the cell potential relative to the standard hydrogen electrode.
Introduction – cells – types - representation of galvanic cell - electrode potential - Nernst equation (derivation of cell EMF) - calculation of cell EMF from single electrode potential - reference electrode: construction, working and applications of standard hydrogen electrode, standard calomel electrode - glass electrode – EMF series and its applications - potentiometric titrations (redox) - conductometric titrations - mixture of weak and strong acid vs strong base.
Potentiometry1 for mpharm ist sem notes prakash64742
The document summarizes potentiometry and potentiometric titrations. Potentiometry uses measurement of electrical potential to perform qualitative and quantitative analysis. The potential of a sample is directly proportional to the activity of electroactive ions present, such as pH. Potentiometric titrations involve direct measurement of electrode potential or changes in potential upon titrant addition to determine the endpoint. Common types include acid-base, redox, complexometric, and precipitation titrations. Choice of reference and indicator electrodes depends on the reaction taking place.
prepared notes as pre Tanzanian syllabus by Mr Saad Miraji a bachelor degree holder in science with education (chemistry and biology) currently teaching at Shamsiye boys secondary school advance chemistry
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
Potentiometry is a technique that measures the potential or electromotive force (emf) of a solution using an indicator electrode and a reference electrode. The potential difference between the two electrodes is dependent on factors like pH, gas concentration, or analyte ion activity in the solution. Common types of electrodes used include glass membrane pH electrodes, ion-selective electrodes with liquid or crystalline membranes, and gas-sensing electrodes. Potentiometric measurements can be carried out via direct measurement, standard addition, or titration to determine analyte concentration.
Potentiometry: Electrical potential, electrochemical cell, reference electrodes, indicator
electrodes, measurement of potential and Ph, construction and working of electrodes,
Potentiometric titrations, methods of detecting end point, Karl Fischer titration.
Instrumental methods ii and basics of electrochemistryJLoknathDora
1. The document discusses electrochemical cells and instrumentation based on electrochemical properties. It describes the basic components and reactions of galvanic and electrolytic cells.
2. Potentiometric titrations are discussed as a method to determine the equivalence point of a titration based on potential measurements using a reference and indicator electrode. Common indicator electrodes like quinhydrone and glass electrodes are described.
3. The principles of operation of quinhydrone and glass electrodes are summarized, including their Nernst equations and typical cell setups. Advantages and limitations of these indicator electrodes are also mentioned.
Electrochemistry deals with chemical reactions caused by electric currents or electric currents produced by chemical reactions. Galvanic cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy through redox reactions. Reversible cells like Daniel cells can undergo reactions in both directions while irreversible cells like zinc-silver cells cannot. Protective metal coatings through electroplating or electroless plating prevent corrosion by depositing a noble metal layer on a substrate.
This document discusses potentiometry and ion selective electrodes. It begins by explaining that potentiometry measures the potential of an electrochemical cell under static conditions without drawing current. An ion selective electrode uses a selective membrane to measure the concentration of specific ions based on the potential difference between an indicator and reference electrode. The document then describes different types of reference electrodes, indicator electrodes, and ion selective electrodes like glass membrane, solid state, liquid membrane and gas sensing electrodes. It concludes by discussing applications in clinical chemistry, environmental analysis and food processing and advantages like speed and low cost and limitations like precision and interference issues.
This document discusses various devices used in electrochemical analysis and auxiliary laboratory devices. It describes devices for electrochemical analysis including galvanic cells, electrodes, potentiometry, conductometry, and voltammetry. It also describes auxiliary devices such as centrifuges, shakers, homogenizers, vacuum pumps, thermostats, and air conditioning used to support electrochemical analysis and biomedical research.
This document discusses devices used in electrochemical analysis and auxiliary laboratory devices. It describes galvanic cells, electrodes, and potentiometric devices used to determine ionic composition. It also discusses auxiliary devices like centrifuges and thermostats. Conductometers and coulometers are described which measure conductivity by applying a low voltage alternating current between electrodes to avoid electrolysis. pH meters and glass electrodes are summarized which can directly measure pH by relating the electrode voltage to hydrogen ion concentration.
ESTIMATION OF THE RATE OF REACTION WILL BE DONE BASED ON THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REFERENCE AND INDICATOR ELECTRODE. THE POTENTIAL OF THE REFERENCE ELECTRODE IS STABLE WHERE AS THE POTENTIAL OF THE INDICATOR ELECTRODE VARIES WITH THE POTENTIAL OF THE SOLUTION IN WHICH IT IS PLACED
This document discusses the principles of potentiometric measurement. Potentiometry involves measuring the potential of an electrochemical cell under conditions of zero current flow, allowing the cell composition to remain unchanged. The potential is related to analyte concentration by the Nernst equation. Potentiometric cells consist of a sensing electrode and a reference electrode separated by a salt bridge. The potential difference between the electrodes corresponds to analyte levels. Common sensing electrodes include ion-selective electrodes and metallic electrodes like silver or copper that respond to specific ions.
This document discusses potentiometry, which is a method of measuring electrical potential or electromotive force (emf) of a solution using indicator and reference electrodes. It describes the components of a potentiometric cell including the reference electrode, salt bridge, analyte solution, and indicator electrode. Various types of reference electrodes like standard hydrogen, saturated calomel, and silver/silver chloride electrodes are explained. The document also covers different types of indicator electrodes like metallic electrodes, membrane electrodes, and gas sensing probes. Direct potentiometry and potentiometric titration techniques are briefly mentioned.
This document discusses potentiometry, which is a method of measuring electrical potential or emf to determine the concentration of ions in solution. It describes the components of a potentiometric cell including reference, indicator and salt bridge electrodes. Various types of reference electrodes like hydrogen, calomel and silver/silver chloride electrodes are explained. Indicator electrodes can be metallic, glass membrane, liquid membrane, crystalline membrane or gas sensing probes. Direct potentiometry and potentiometric titration methods for cation/anion analysis are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of the key concepts in electrochemistry including oxidation-reduction reactions, galvanic cells, standard reduction potentials, the Nernst equation, electrolysis, batteries, corrosion, and commercial electrolytic processes. It defines important terms, describes experimental set ups and calculations for electrochemical cells, and summarizes fundamental electrochemical principles and laws such as Faraday's laws of electrolysis.
Ion sensitive electrode & gas sensitive electrode..vishnupriya456
Ion-selective electrodes are sensors that convert the activity of specific ions in solution into an electrical potential. They are used to measure ion concentrations in analytical chemistry and research. The voltage produced depends on the ionic activity according to the Nernst equation. Ion-selective electrodes selectively bind target ions, allowing direct measurement of their activity. They consist of an ion-selective membrane that only allows the target ion to pass, producing a potential difference related to its concentration.
Potentiometry is an electroanalytical technique where the potential difference between two electrodes is measured under conditions of no current flow. It was invented in 1841 by Johann Christian Poggendorff using a slide-wire potentiometer. A potentiometric cell consists of a reference electrode with a known potential and an indicator electrode, whose potential changes depending on the analyte concentration. The potential difference between the electrodes is measured to determine the analyte concentration. Common applications of potentiometry include titrations, analysis of pollutants, drugs, foods, and more.
Potentiometric titration uses a potentiometer to determine the concentration of an analyte in solution. A potentiometer consists of an indicator electrode and a reference electrode placed in the solution. The potential difference between the electrodes is measured as titrant is added. When the endpoint of the titration is reached, there is an abrupt change in the measured potential that can be used to calculate the concentration of analyte. Potentiometric titration is a common volumetric technique used in electroanalytical chemistry.
Electrochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that produce electricity and electrical energy's ability to cause non-spontaneous reactions. There are two types of electrochemical cells: galvanic cells that convert chemical energy to electrical energy, and electrolytic cells that use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous reactions. Galvanic cells contain a spontaneous redox reaction like in Daniel cells where zinc oxidizes and copper reduces. Electrolytic cells use an external voltage to force nonspontaneous redox reactions. Standard electrode potentials allow prediction of reaction spontaneity based on the cell potential relative to the standard hydrogen electrode.
Introduction – cells – types - representation of galvanic cell - electrode potential - Nernst equation (derivation of cell EMF) - calculation of cell EMF from single electrode potential - reference electrode: construction, working and applications of standard hydrogen electrode, standard calomel electrode - glass electrode – EMF series and its applications - potentiometric titrations (redox) - conductometric titrations - mixture of weak and strong acid vs strong base.
Potentiometry1 for mpharm ist sem notes prakash64742
The document summarizes potentiometry and potentiometric titrations. Potentiometry uses measurement of electrical potential to perform qualitative and quantitative analysis. The potential of a sample is directly proportional to the activity of electroactive ions present, such as pH. Potentiometric titrations involve direct measurement of electrode potential or changes in potential upon titrant addition to determine the endpoint. Common types include acid-base, redox, complexometric, and precipitation titrations. Choice of reference and indicator electrodes depends on the reaction taking place.
prepared notes as pre Tanzanian syllabus by Mr Saad Miraji a bachelor degree holder in science with education (chemistry and biology) currently teaching at Shamsiye boys secondary school advance chemistry
Similar to ppt uit 2 link -final - (1.1.23) - Copy.pptx (20)
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
Harnessing WebAssembly for Real-time Stateless Streaming PipelinesChristina Lin
Traditionally, dealing with real-time data pipelines has involved significant overhead, even for straightforward tasks like data transformation or masking. However, in this talk, we’ll venture into the dynamic realm of WebAssembly (WASM) and discover how it can revolutionize the creation of stateless streaming pipelines within a Kafka (Redpanda) broker. These pipelines are adept at managing low-latency, high-data-volume scenarios.
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning an...gerogepatton
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Applications (NLAIM 2024) offers a premier global platform for exchanging insights and findings in the theory, methodology, and applications of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their applications. The conference seeks substantial contributions across all key domains of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their practical applications, aiming to foster both theoretical advancements and real-world implementations. With a focus on facilitating collaboration between researchers and practitioners from academia and industry, the conference serves as a nexus for sharing the latest developments in the field.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELgerogepatton
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
2. CELLS
Electrochemistry: It is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of
transformation of chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa”
Electrochemical cell and Classification with examples.
An electrochemical cell is a device, which is used to convert chemical energy
into electrical energy and vice versa.
These electrochemical cells are classified into two types as follows’
1) Galvanic or Voltaic cells: These are the electrochemical cells, which
converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
Ex. Daniel cell, Dry cell, etc
2)Electrolytic cells-are devices which convert electrical energy into
chemical energy.
Example: Electrolysis of molten NaCl, Recharge process of lead acid battery
3. The Nernst Equation
E cell = E 0
cell - (RT/nF) lnQ
Ecell = cell potential under nonstandard conditions (V)
Ecell = cell potential under nonstandard conditions (V)
E0
cell = cell potential under standard conditions
R = gas constant, which is 8.31 (volt-coulomb)/(mol-K)
T = temperature (K)
n = number of moles of electrons exchanged in the
electrochemical reaction (mol)
F = Faraday's constant, 96500 coulombs/mol
Q = reaction quotient, which is the equilibrium expression with
initial concentrations rather than equilibrium concentrations
5. Reference Electrodes:
• Reference electrode: “Reference electrode are the electrode with
reference to those, the electrode potential of any electrode can be
measured.” It can acts both as an anode or cathode depending upon the
nature of other electrode.
• Reference electrode is defined as the electrode which has stable and
reproducible potential and complete the cell acting as half cell. The criteria
for an electrode to act as reference electrode
• 1. The potential of such electrode should be known
• 2. The potential show minimum variation
The Reference Electrodes can be classified in to two types
i) Primary reference electrodes Ex: Standard hydrogen electrode
ii)Secondary reference electrodes Ex: Calomel and Ag/Agcl
electrodes
6. Reference electrodes
A) Primary reference electrode
e.g. Hydrogen electrode
B) Secondary reference electrode
e.g. Calomel electrode, silver-silver chloride
electrode, mercury-mercury sulphate electrode,
mercuric oxide electrode, glass electrode,
quinhydrone electrode.
7. Secondary Reference Electrode
Calomel Electrode:
Principle: The potential of the calomel electrode depends
upon the concentration of KCl. If KCl solution is saturated,
then its potential is0.2415V and such electrode is called
saturated calomel electrode(SCE).
If KCl solution is 1N,then its potential is 0.280V and such
electrode is called normal calomel electrode(NCE).If KCl
solution is0.1N,then its potential is 0.3338V and such electrode
is called decinormal calomel electrode.(DNCE).
Representation of calomel electrode:
Hg|Hg2Cl2.KCl(xM)
9. The calomel electrode merits and demerits
Merits
• It is easy to construct and transport and
convenient to handle.
• The potential of the electrode is reproducible and
remains constant
• No separate salt bridge is required for its
combination with other electrode
Demerits
• It should be used above 50 oC Hg2Cl2 starts
decomposing
• It involves handling of poisonous Hg and Hg2Cl2
10. Concentration
of KCl
E0
[v]
saturated KCl 0.241
1M KCl 0.281
0.1M KCl 0.33
4
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRODE POTENTIAL USING CALOMEL ELECTRODE:
Electrode potential of a given electrode can be measured by using calomel electrode as a
reference electrode.
Example: To measure the electrode potential of zinc, Zinc electrode is coupled with SCE. So zinc
acts as anode and SCE acts as cathode
Ec e l l Ec a t h o d e Ea n o d e
Ea n o d e Ec a t h o d e Ec e l l
0 . 2 4 1 Ec e l l
E 2
Z n / Zn
Applications:
1.It is used as secondary reference electrode in the measurement of single electrode.
2.It is used as reference electrode in all potentiometer determinations and to
measure pH of the given solution
11. T h e n e t cel l r ev er s i b l e el e ct r o d er e a ct i o n i s ,
E E
0
2 . 3 0 3 R T
logCl , w h e r e n 1
A g C l ( s ) 2 e - A g C l -
n F
E E 0
0.0591logCl
at 2 9 8 K
Therefore electrode potential of calomel electrode is
depending upon the concentration of KCl. The
electrode is reversible with chloride ions.
Applications:
Used as secondary reference electrode in ion selective elctrode.
12. Indicator Electrode (Glass Electrode)
The glass electrode consists of a very thin walled glass bulb,
made from a low melting glass having high electrical
conductivity, blown at the end of a glass tube as shown in fig.
The bulb contains 1M HCl solution sealed into glass tube is a
silver wire coated with silver chloride at its lower end. The
lower end of the silver wire dips into the HCl, forming silver-
silver chloride electrode.
When glass electrode is placed in a solution the potential
develops across the glass membrane as a result of a
concentration difference of H+ ions on the two side of the
membrane. The potential of a glass electrode is determined
using standard calomel electrode as shown in fig (a) & (b).
13. Principle
When two solution of different (H+) are separated by a
thin glass membrane, a potential difference is
developed at the two surface of membrane .The
potential difference developed is proportional to the
difference in H+ of the solution.
The glass membrane acts as ion exchange i.e. exchange
of Na + of glass with H+
15. Determination of pH using glass electrode:
0.0591
E 0
G Ec e l l ES C E
pH
Ecell Ecathode Eanode
Ec e l l EG ES C E
Since E SCE is knowing e m f the cell,
E glass can be evaluated.
EG E 0
G 0.0591 pH
Ecell E 0
G 0.0591 pH ES C E
16. Ion selective electrodes (ISE)
An ion selective electrode is an indicator electrode which produces
a potential when it is placed in a solution containing a certain ion.
In this electrode, a suitable non porous membrane separate two
solutions, containing similar ions of different concentration and
acts as an electrochemical membrane. The remarkable property of
such electrode is that a potential difference is developed on either
side of the membrane which is proportional to the concentration
difference.
“ Ion selective electrode is one which selectively responds to a
specific ion in a mixture and the potential developed at the
electrode is a function of the concentration of that ion in the
solution”
17. ISE
• Also known as indicator electrodes
• Respond directly to the analyte
• Used for direct potentiometric measurements
• Selectively binds and measures the activity of one
ion (no redox chemistry)
18. ISE have many advantage
Relatively inexpensive and simple to use
Robust and durable in field and laboratory
environment .
Can be used for colored, turbid samples
Can be used for wide range of temperature.
Mechanical strong
Resistant to chemical attack
Resistant to solvent attack
19. • An ion-selective electrode (ISE), also known as
a specific ion electrode (SIE), is a transducer
(or sensor) that converts the activity of a specific
ion dissolved in a solution into an electrical
potential, which can be measured by a voltmeter
or pH meter.
• An ideal I.S.E. consists of a thin membrane across
which only the intended ion can be transported.
• The transport of ions from a high conc. to a low one
through a selective binding with some sites within
the membrane creates a potential difference.
20. Types of Ion selective electrodes
Glass membrane electrode- H+ , Na+, Ag +, K +
Liquid membrane electrode-Ca
Solid-state electrode-F-
Gas sensing electrode-H2S,NO2,CO2
Enzyme electrodes-NH3,amines
21. GLASS MEMBRANE ELECTRODE
• Glass electrode are responsive to
univalent cations ( H+ , Na+)
• The selectivity for this cation by varying the composition
of a thin ion sensitive glass membrane.
• Example: pH electrodeused for pH measurement
-used as a transducer in various gas and
biocatalytic sensor, involving proton generating or
consuming reaction.
22. • Glass membrane manufactured from SiO2 with
negatively charged oxygen atom.
• Inside the glass bulb, a dilute HCl solution and
silver wire coated with a layer of silver chloride.
• The electrode is immersed in the solution and pH is
measured.
23. e
Construction and working of Ion selective electrod
(ISE) :
Glass electrode: A glass electrode is an ion selective electrode where
potential depends upon the pH of the medium.
1. The glass electrode consists of a glass bulb made up of special type of
glass (sodium silicate type of glass) with high electrical conductance.
2. The glass bulb is filled with a solution of constant pH (0.1MHCl) and
insert with a Ag-AgCl electrode, which is the Internal reference
electrode and also serves for the external electrical contact.
3. The electrode dipped in a solution containing H+ ions as shown in the
figure.
The electrode representation is,
Glass | 0.1M HCl | Ag-AgCl
24. • Ion Selective Electrodes (including the most common
pH electrode) work on the basic principal of the
galvanic cell .By measuring the electric potential
generated across a membrane by "selected" ions, and
comparing it to a reference electrode, a net charge is
determined. The strength of this charge is directly
proportional to the concentration of the selected ion. The
basic formula is given for the galvanic cell:
• Ecell = EISE - ERef
25. WORKING:
• The glass electrode works on the principle that when a thin
glass membrane is placed between two different concentration
of a solution, a boundary potential Eb is developed at layers of
the glass membrane. This potential arises due to difference in
the concentration of H+ ion inside and outside themembrane.
External Solution glass membrane Internal solution
C2=[H+]
E2 Eb
C1=[CONSTANT]=k
E1
• Boundary potential, Eb = E2 – E1
26. Advantages
• This electrode can be used to determine PH in the range 0-
9, with special type of glass even up to 12 can be
calculated.
• It can be used even in the case of strong oxidizing agents.
• The equilibrium is reached quickly.
• It is simple to operate, hence extensively used in various
laboratories.
Limitations
• The glass membrane though it is very thin, it offers high
resistance. Therefore ordinary potentiometers cannot be
used; hence it is necessary to use electronic
potentiometers.
• This electrode cannot be used to determine the PH above 12
27. SOLID STATE ELECTRODE
• Solid state electrode are selective primarily to
anions.
• It may be a homogenous membrane electrode
or heterogeneous membrane electrode.
• Homogenous membrane electrode: ion-selective
electrodes in which the membrane is a crystalline
material (AgI/Ag2S).
28. Homogenous membrane electrode
• homogenous electrode is made up of LaF3 for
determination of F- in water and doped with
Europium flouride
• LaF3 (s) La F2 + F-
• This leads to separation of charge and equilibrium
is established ,leads to potential.
29. Homogenous membrane electrode:
The membrane is made from Lanthanum trifluoride(LaF3)crystal
doped with europium fluoride(EuF2)
The crystal is sealed at the bottom of the polymer containing
internal reference solution (NaF +NaCl or KF or Kcl) consisting
of a reference electrode
30. Determination of Fluoride Ion
• In the lanthanum fluoride electrode, the sensing
element is a crystal of lanthanum fluoride LaF3,
doped with europium fluoride EuF2 to
create lattice vacancies. Such a crystal is an ionic
conductor by virtue of the mobility of fluoride ions
which jump between lattice vacancies.
• An electrochemical cell may be constructed using such
a crystal as amembrane separating two fluoride
solutions.This cell actsas a concentration cell with
transference where the fluoride transport number is 1.
As transference of charge through the crystal is almost
exclusively due to fluoride, the electrode is highly
specific to fluoride
31. Working :
1. EuF2 produces holes in the crystal lattice of Laf3 through
which F- ions can pass.
2. When the electrode is in contact with the sample solution a
potential develops across the membrane which depends on
the difference F- concentration since the concentration on
the F- in the internal solution is fixed the potential developed
across the membrane is related to F- concentration
32. Heterogeneous membrane electrode:
Heterogeneous membrane electrode consisting
of solid crystalline material (AgI/Ag2S)incorporated
with polymer like PVC or silicon
When the electrode membrane is in contact with a
solution containing chloride ions an eletrode
potential develops. This potential is measured
against constant reference potential.
33. LIQUID MEMBRANE
ELECTRODE
• Liquid membrane is a type of ISE based on
water-immiscible liquid substances produced in
a polymeric membrane used for direct
potentiometric measurement.
• Used for direct measurement of several polyvalent
cations (Ca ion) as well as a certain anions.
34. • The polymeric membrane made of PVC to
separate the test solution from its inner
compartment.
• Contains standard solution of the target ion.
• The filling solution contains a chloride salt for
establishing the potential of the internal Ag/AgCl
wire electrode.
35. GAS SENSING ELECTRODE
• Available for the measurement of ammonia,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide. A nitrate ion
responsive electrode is for NO2 while sulphide
ion selective electrode for H2S
• This type of electrode consist of permeable membrane
and an internal buffer solution.
• The pH of the buffer changes as the gas react with it.
• The gas permeable membrane is made of a
hydrophobic porous polymer. The gas in the test
solution diffuses through the membrane and reacts
with the internal filling solution to form the ions.
36. Working:
• The electrode does not detect the presence of
molecular gas but rather an ion into which the gas is
converted after it passes through the membrane.
• The gas in the test solution diffuses through the
membrane and reacts with the internal filling solution
to form the ion. These ions are detected using gas
sensing electrode
37. Enzyme based membrane
These electrode use enzyme to convert
substance in the solution into ionic products
which are measured using ion selective
electrode. The enzyme is immobilized at the
surface of the electrode
38. Enzyme based membrane
Working:
When the electrode is immersed into a solution
containing urea,NH4+ ios are produced which
through the gel.
CO(NH2)2 +H2O+2H+ 2NH4 +CO2
The boundary potential is developed due to
difference in concentration of NH4 on either side
of the membrane
The potential developed is measured using a glass
electrode as reference electrode
39. Advantages of IonSelectiveElectrode
(ISE) Technique
• When compared to many other analytical techniques,
Ion-Selective Electrodes are relatively inexpensive and
simple to use and have an extremely wide range of
applications and wide concentration range.
• Under the most favorable conditions, when measuring
ions in relatively dilute aqueous solutions and where
interfering ions are not a problem, they can be used
very rapidly and easily.
• They are particularly useful in applications where only
an order of magnitude concentration is required, or it
is only necessary to know that a particular ion is below
a certain concentration level.
40. • They are invaluable for the continuous monitoring
of changes in concentration for example in
potentiometric titrations or monitoring the uptake of
nutrients, or the consumption of reagents.
• They are particularly useful in biological/medical
applications because they measure the activity of
the ion directly, rather than the concentration.
• ISEs are one of the few techniques which can
measure both positive and negative ions.
• They are unaffected by sample colour or turbidity.
• ISEs can be used in aqueous solutions over a
wide temperature range. Crystal membranes can
operate in the range 0 C to 80 C and plastic
membranes from 0 C to 50 C.
41. LIMITATION
• Precision is rarely better than 1%.
• Electrodes can be fouled by proteins or other organic
solutes.
• Interference by other ions.
• Electrodes are fragile and have limited shelf life.
• Electrodes respond to the activity of uncomplexed ion.
So ligands must be absent.
42. APPLICATION
Ion-selective electrodes are used in a wide variety of applications for
determining the concentrations of various ions in aqueous solutions. The
following is a list of some of the main areas in which ISEs have been used.
Pollution Monitoring: CN, F, S, Cl, NO3 etc., in effluents, and naturalwaters.
Agriculture: NO3, Cl, NH4, K, Ca, I, CN in soils, plant material, fertilisersand
feedstuffs.
Food Processing: NO3, NO2 in meat preservatives.
Salt content of meat, fish, dairy products, fruit juices, brewing solutions.
F in drinking water and other drinks.
K in fruit juices and wine making.
Corrosive effect of NO3 in canned food
F in skeletal and dental studies.
43. ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS
Electrochemical methods are analytical techniques that use a
measurement of potential, charge or current to determine an
analyte concentration or to characterize an analytes chemical
techniques.
These methods are divided into 5 major groups
Potentiometry
Voltametry
Coulometry
Conductometry
Dielectrometry
44. CONDUCTOMETRY
Principle
The ability of any ion to transport charge
depends on the mobility of the ion, mobility of ion is
affected by factors like the charge on ion, size and
mass of ion and extent of solvation.
45. Important laws, used in conductometry
Ohm’s Law : It is written as, I α E
Unit = Ω(ohm).
Conductance (c): It is written as C = 1/R,
Unit = ohm or mho (ohm-1)
Specific resistance (ρ): It is written as R α l/a or R=ρ.l/a
Unit = ρ is ohm.cm
Specific conductance (k): It is written as K =C.l/a
Unit = mho.cm-1
Cell constant: It is written as K = C.(l/a)
Unit= cm-1
Equivalent conductance (λv): λv = K x 1000/C
Unit = λv = ohm-1.cm2.gm-equiv-1
Molar conductance (µ):µ = µ µ = K x 1000/Molarity
Unit = mho.cm2.gmol-1
46. Important laws, Definitions used in conductometery
Based on the conductance of electrical current through
electrolyte solutions similar to metallic conductors.
ohms law : The electric conductance in accordance with ohms
law which states that the strength of current(I) passing through
conductor is directly proportional to potential difference and
inversely to resistance.
I=V/R
where I = strength of current
V= potential difference
R= resistance
47. DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONS
Ohms law: According to this law, the strength of current
(I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference (E) applied across the conductor
and inversely proportional to the resistance (R) of the
conductor.
I = E/R
Conductance: It implies the ease with which the current
flows through conductor, thus the conductance is
reciprocal to resistance.
C= I/R
48. Resistance refers to the opposition
to the flow of current.
For a conductor of uniform cross section(a)
and length(l); Resistance R,
a
l
l l
R l and R R
a a
Where is called resistivity or
specific resistance.
Resistance
49. Conductance
The reciprocal of the resistance is called conductance. It is denoted by C.
C=1/R
Conductors allows electric current to pass through them. Examples are metals,
aqueous solution of
acids, bases and salts etc.
Insulators do not allow the electric current to pass
through them.
Examples are pure water, urea, sugar etc.
Unit of conductance is ohm-1 or mho or Siemen(S)
50. Specific resistance: (ρ) is the resistance offered by a substance is
directly proportional to 1cm length and inversely proportional
to 1sq.cm cross sectional surface area
It is written as R α l/a or R=ρ.l/a
Unit of measurement is ohm cm.
Specific conductivity: (kv) is the conductivity offered by a
substance of 1cm length and 1sq.cm surface area,Unit of
measurement is mhos cmˉ1
Specific conductance (k): It is written as K =C.l/a
Unit = mho.cm-1
51. DEFINITIONS ANDRELATIONS
Specific resistance: (ρ) is the resistance offered by a substance is
directly proportional to 1cm length and inversely proportional
to 1sq.cm cross sectional surface area
It is written as R α l/a or R=ρ.l/a
Unit of measurement is ohm cm.
Specific conductivity: (kv) is the conductivity offered by a
substance of 1cm length and 1sq.cm surface area,Unit of
measurement is mhos cmˉ1
Specific conductance (k): It is written as K =C.l/a
Unit = mho.cm-1
52. Specific conductance
1
Specific Conductivity
K
a
x Conductance
Unit of specific conductance is ohm–1cm–1
SI Unit of specific conductance is Sm–1 where S is Siemen
a
But ρ = R
K
a.R
l/a is known as cell constant
Conductance of unit volume of
cell is specific conductance.
54. Molar and Equivalent conductance
Molar conductance: This may be defined as “the conductance of
a solution containing 1gm mole of electrolyte
It is denoted by µvand is measured in mhos
λv = K x 1000/M Unit = λv = ohm-1.cm2.per mole
Equivalent conductance (λv): Conductivity of solution by all
the ions produced by one gram equivalent in V volume
(v=1000/c)
λv = K x V
λv = K x 1000/C
Unit = λv = ohm-1.cm2.gm-equiv-1
55. DETERMINATION OF CELLCONSTANT
Cell constant :Cell constant is the ratio of the distance
between two electrodes and area of the electrode.
If two electrode 1 cm apart and having area A then l/a is fixed
R = ρx [where x=l/a= cell constant]
Specific conductance= Cell constant X Conductance
X = cell constant = R
ρ
cell constant=1observed conductivity
1specific conductivity
Specific conductivity= cell constant X observed conductivity
57. Variation of conductance with Dilution.
The conductivity of solution increases on dilution.
The specific conductivity decreases on dilution (as
number of ions decreases w.r.t. to volume).
The equivalent and molar conductivities increase with
dilution.
The equivalent and molar conductivities tend to
acquire maximum value with increasing dilution.
[Maximum at dilution]
Variation of molar conductance with concentration
58. Effect of Dilution on Conductivity
Specific conductivity decreases on dilution.
Equivalent and molar conductance both increase with dilution and reaches
a maximum value.
The conductance of all electrolytes increases with temperature.
concentration, (mole L )
–1 1/2
CH COOH (weak electrolyte)
3
KCl (strong electrolyte)
59. Factors Affecting Conductivity
Conductometric analysis is based on the measurement of the
electrical conductivity of the solution due to the mobility of
cations and anions towards respective electrodes.
The electrical conductivity is entirely due to the movement of
ions.
The various factors are:
1. Number of ions per ml: Greater the number of ions per ml in a
solution, greater is the specific resistance. At higher concentration
of solution, the number of ions per ml is higher.
2.Charge of ions: Higher the charge on ions, greater is the
conducting ability Eg:Mg++ has more conductivity than Na+,So2
has more conductivity than NO3-
60. The mobility of an ion:
Smaller the size of ion, greater is its mobility and
conducting ability.Eg H+ions have highest mobility
due to its smalllest size.NH4+ has lesser conductivitry
than Na+
Effect of temperature on conductivity :-
The conductance of the solution increases with
increase in temperature due to,
Increase in the velocity of ions.
Decrease in the viscosity of the medium.
Decrease in the interaction between the ions.
61. Concentration:
At higher concentration, the degree of dissociation
is lower. Hence number of ions per ml is slightly
lower.
The specific conductivity decreases on dilution (as
number of ions decreases w.r.t. to volume).
The equivalent and molar conductivities increase
with dilution
62. Kohlarusch’s Law:-
The law states that at infinite dilution, each ion
migrates independently of its co-ions and contributes
definite share to the total equivalent conductance of
the electrolyte
The equivalent conductance of an electrolyte at infinite
dilution is equal to the sum of the equivalent
conductance of the component ions.
Mathematically it is written as, λ∞ =λ anion + λ cation
63. Application of Kohlarusch’s Law :-
Calculation of molar conductivity at infinite dilution
for weak electrolytes:
Calculation of degree of dissociation:
Calculation of dissociation constant for a weak
electrolyte:
Calculation of solubility of sparingly soluble salt:
67. ACID-BASE OR NEUTRAL TITRATIONS
STRONG ACID- STRONGBASE
• Eg. HCl vs NaOH
WEAK ACID – STRONGBASE
• Eg. CH3COOH vs NaOH
STRONG ACID – WEAKBASE
• Eg. HCl vs NH4OH
WEAK ACID – WEAKBASE
• Eg. CH3COOH vs NH4OH
68. Types of Conductometric Titrations:
Titration of strong acid (HCl) with strong base (NaOH):
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
69. STRONG ACID- STRONG BASE
Fall in conductance due to replacement of high conductivity
hydrogen ions by poor conductivity of sodium ions.
Rise in conductance due to increase in hydroxyl ions.
70. Titration of a weak acid (CH3COOH) and a strong
base (NaOH) :-
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COO-Na+ + H2O
71. WEAK ACID – STRONGBASE:
Initial decrease in conductance followed by increase due to
NaOH
Steep rise due to excess of NaOH
72. STRONG ACID – WEAKBASE
Fall in conductance due to replacement of hydrogen by
ammonium ions
Conductance remain constant due to suppression of NH4OH
by NH4Cl.
73. WEAK ACID – WEAKBASE
Increase in conductance due to excess of CH3COOH
Constant conductance due to suppression of NH4
OH by
CH3COOH
74. ADVANTAGES OF CONDUCTOMETRIC
TITRATIONS
Does not require indicators since change in conductance is
measured by conductometer.
Suitable for coloured solutions.
Since end point is determined by graphically means accurate
results are obtained with minimum error.
Used for analysis of turbid suspensions, weak acids, weak bases,
mix of weak and strong acids.
Temperature is maintained constant throughout the titration.
This method cab be used with much diluted solutions.
Be seen by eye.
75. DISADVANTAGES
Increased levels of salt in solutions masks the conductivity
changes in such cases it does not gives accurate results.
Applications of conductometric titrations to redox systems is
limited because, high concentration of hydronium ions in the
solutions tends to mask the change in conductance.
76. pH Metry :-
The concept of pH was first introduced by Danish chemist
Sorensen. The equation that defines pH is given as
follows:
pH= -log[H+]
which is read as: the pH is equal to minus the log of the H+
concentration.
For example :-
H+ concentration is very low, lets say about 0.0000001M,
then the pH is,
pH= -log[.0000001] which is the same as -log[1 X 10-7]
The term log [1 X 10-7] = -7
- (-7) = 7
77. Buffer solutions A buffer solution is one which maintains a fairly
constant PH even when small amount of acid or alkali is added
Types of Buffer solutions :
Acidic buffer:
Acidic buffer solution contains equimolar quantities of a weak
acid and its salt with strong base. For example: acetic acid,
CH3COOH and sodium acetate I.e. CH3COONa. A solution
containing equimolar quantities of acetic acid and sodium acetate
maintains its pH value around 4.74.
Basic buffer:
Basic buffer solution contains equimolar quantities of a weak
base and its salt with strong acid. For example: ammonium
hydroxide i.e. NH4OH and ammonium chloride I.e. NH4Cl. A
solution containing equimolar quantities of ammonium hydroxide
and ammonium chloride maintains its pH value around 9.25.
78. pH metric Titrations:-
Titration of StrongAcids (HCl + NaOH ) against
strong base (NaOH) :-
Principle:
That titration where the end point is measure
by change in pH is known as pH metric titration. On
addition of NaOH in mixture of HCl- NaOH
Reactions will occur:
HCl +NaOH→H2O+NaCl
79. Neutral point
The term "neutral point" is best avoided.
• The term "equivalence point" means that
the solutions have been mixed in exactly
the right proportions according to the
equation.
• The term "end point" is where the
indicator changes colour. As you will see
on the page about indicators, that isn't
necessarily exactly the same as the
equivalence point.
80. Titration curves for strong acid v strong base
All the following titration curves are based on both acid and alkali having
a concentration of 1 mol dm3. In each case, you start with 25 cm3 of
one of the solutions in the flask, and the other one in a burette.
Although you normally run the acid from a burette into the alkali in a
flask, you
may need to know about the titration curve for adding it the other way
around
as well. Alternative versions of the curves have been described in
most cases.
We'll take hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide as typical of a strong
acid and a strong base.
Running acid into the alkali
•You can see that the pH only falls a very
small amount until quite near the
equivalence point. Then there is a really
steep plunge.
81. Titration curves for strong acid v strong base
Running alkali into the acid
• This is very similar to the
previous curve except, of
course, that the pH starts off
low and increases as you
add more sodium hydroxide
solution.
• Again, the pH doesn't
change very much until you
get close to the equivalence
point. Then it surges
upwards very steeply.