The document discusses different theories of motivation in the workplace. It covers content theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, and Herzberg's two-factor theory, which focus on understanding employee needs and what satisfies them. It also discusses process theories like Adams' equity theory and goal setting theory, which examine the psychological processes that translate needs into motivated behavior. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of major motivation theories and their implications for effectively engaging and satisfying employees.

1. individuals at work: motivation Money, get away Get a good job with more pay and your O.K. Money, it's a gas Grab that cash with both hands and make a stash New car, caviar, four star daydream, think I'll buy me a football team Money get back, I'm all right Jack keep your hands off my stack. Money, it's a hit Don't give me that do goody good bullshit I'm in the hi-fidelity first class travelling set and I think I need a Lear jet Money, it's a crime Share it fairly but don't take a slice of my pie Money, so they say Is the root of all evil today But if you ask for a rise it's no surprise that they're giving none away Pink Floyd (1973)‏

2. Why do we do something and not something else?Why do we put effort into some things and not others?Why do we persist in achieving some things and not others?

3. Three aspects of motivation Direction what an individual chooses when they have a number of alternatives Level how much effort they will put into a given action Persistence how long they will maintain focusing on the action

9. What could organisations do to satisfy each need?

10. Organisational conditions Need Pay Mandatory breakfast or lunch Physiological Company housing or health benefits Company benefits plan Pensions Life-long employment plans Insurance schemes Safety / Security Coffee breaks Sports teams and other extracurricular activities Work teams Belongingness/Relatedness Autonomy on the job Responsibility Pay (as a symbol of status)‏ Job Title Prestige office location Esteem Job challenge and skill usage Pay Leadership positions Authority Achievement Competence Power Challenge Autonomy Educational opportunities Self-Actualization Drawn from Furnham (2005)‏

11. ERG theory Developed by Clayton Alderfer. Collapses Maslow’s five categories into three categories Adds a frustration-regression hypothesis. More than one need category may be activated at the same time.

12. ERGTheory Needs HierarchyTheory Self- Actualization Growth Desire for continued personal growth and development Esteem Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships Social Relatedness Safety Existence Desire for physiological and material well-being. Physiological

13. Satisfaction-Progression Frustration-Regression Growth Relatedness Existence

14. ERG theory Developed by Clayton Alderfer. Collapses Maslow’s five categories into three categories Adds a frustration-regression hypothesis. More than one need category may be activated at the same time. Research evidence on ERG theory. Supporting evidence is encouraging. Addition of frustration/regression hypothesis is a valuable contribution. Offers a more flexible approach to understanding human needs.

15. Herzberg (1966)‏ Traditional View Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Herzberg's view Hygiene Factors Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction Motivators No Satisfaction Satisfaction

16. Herzberg (1966)‏ Hygiene Factors Necessary, but not sufficient, for healthy adjustment Extrinsic factors; context of work Improving hygiene factors prevent people from being dissatisfied but do not contribute to satisfaction. Motivators Motivators - the sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors; content of work Enables people to be satisfied. Absence results in low satisfaction, low motivation, and low performance.

17. Herzberg (1966)‏ Hygiene Factors Necessary, but not sufficient, for healthy adjustment Extrinsic factors; context of work Improving hygiene factors prevent people from being dissatisfied but do not contribute to satisfaction. Examples Pay Status Job security Fringe benefits Policies and administrative practices Human Relations

18. Herzberg (1966)‏ Examples Meaningful and challenging work Recognition for accomplishments Feeling of achievement Increased responsibility Opportunity for growth Opportunity for advancement Motivators Motivators - the sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors; content of work Enables people to be satisfied. Absence results in low satisfaction, low motivation, and low performance.

19. Source: Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003), p. 90. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved.

20. Motivator--Hygiene Theory ERGTheory Needs HierarchyTheory Self- Actualization Growth Motivators Esteem Hygienes Belongingness Relatedness Safety Existence Physiological

21. McClelland’s Need Theory Need for Achievement (n Ach) Need for Power (n Pow)‏ Need for Affiliation (n Aff)‏

22. McClelland’s Need Theory Need for Achievement(n Ach)‏ Want to take personal responsibility for solving problems. Goal oriented; set moderate, realistic, attainable goals. Seek challenge, excellence, and individuality. Take calculated, moderate risk. Desire concrete feedback on their performance. Willing to work hard.

23. McClelland’s Need Theory Need for Power (n Pow)‏ Want to control the situation. Want influence of control over others. Enjoy competition and winning; do not like to lose. Willing to confront others.

24. McClelland’s Need Theory Need for Affiliation (n Aff)‏ Seek close relationship with others. Want to be liked by others. Enjoy lots of social activities. Seek to belong; join groups and organizations.

25. Content Theories of Motivation Motivator--Hygiene Theory McClelland’s Learned Needs ERGTheory Needs HierarchyTheory Self- Actualization Growth Motivators Need for Achievement Esteem Need for Power Hygienes Belongingness Relatedness Need for Affiliation Safety Existence Physiological

26. Content Theories of Motivation Motivator--Hygiene Theory ERGTheory Needs HierarchyTheory McGregor Self- Actualization Growth Motivators Theory Y Esteem Hygienes Belongingness Relatedness Theory X Safety Existence Physiological

27. Jahoda’s Latent Needs

28. Jahoda’s Latent Needs Psychological distress in unemployed can inform us about needs employment satisfies

29. Jahoda’s (1982) Latent Needs Work… structures time provides regular shared experience provides experience of creativity, mastery, purpose is a source of identity and personal status is a source of activity

30. This week Content Theories Why people work Focus on peoples needs to understand what motivates Focuses on why people have different needs at different times Process Theories What factors affect motivation Focus on understanding how and why people are motivated Describes the process through which needs are translated into behaviour

32. Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory Drawn from economics Rational model of employee People strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges Perception of fairness affects behaviour Requires understanding of inputs and outputs

33. Equitably rewarded Inputs and outputs are perceived as being equal Satisfied and motivated Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory

34. Under-rewarded (angry) Efforts to reduce inequity by trying to increase output (get a raise) Reducing inputs (working less, absenteeism, etc.) Rationalising (creating an explanation for the inequity) Changing other’s inputs or outputs Leaving Changing the object of comparison. Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory

35. Over-rewarded (guilty) Increasing inputs (working more, longer hours, etc.) Reducing output (taking a pay cut) Rationalising (I’m worth it) Increasing other’s outputs Adams’ (1965) Equity Theory

36. Equity Theory Distributive Justice: The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed. Procedural Justice: The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. Interactional Justice: The perceived fairness of the decision maker’s behavior in the process of decision making.

37. Lessons from Equity Theory Pay attention to what employees’ perceive to be fair and equitable Allow employees to have a “voice” Employees should have opportunity to appeal Organisational changes, promoting cooperation, etc. can come easier with equitable outcomes Failure to achieve equity could be costly Climate of justice

38. Direction Intensity Persistence Strategies Goal Specificity Goal Commitment Performance Knowledge of Results Goal Acceptance Ability Goal Theory (Locke & Latham, 2002)

39. goal

40. SpecificMeasurable Achievable Realistic Timely

41. What are the next actions required to move you closer?

43. What skills do you have and enjoy participating in those activities that challenge and use those skills?

44. Born in Hungary BA and PhD from University of Chicago Now at Claremont Graduate University Director of Quality of Life Research Centre Research: Happiness Creativity Well-being “Optimal Experience” Flow Part of Positive Psychology movement Flow MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI

45. Study of strengths and virtues Focus on development, thriving, flourishing & meaning 3 main concerns Positive Emotions Contentment (past) Happiness (present) Hope (future) Positive Individual Traits Strengths & Virtues E.g. Creativity, Resilience, Courage, etc. Positive Institutions Focus on tolerance, fairness, ethics, teamwork, engagement, etc. In communities & Institutions (e.g., parenting, businesses, etc.) Positive Psychology

46. The pleasant life (well-being and positive affect) The good life (identification and celebration on personal strengths & skills) The meaningful life (participation in activities, greater good) Positive Psychology

47. MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. (1998). Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement With Everyday Life. And many more…

48. Most people’s live at two extremes anxiety Boredom

49. flow Being in the zone Effortless Action In the groove Immersion At one Absorption

50. Flow- A state of optimal experience. Flow activities are done for their own sake and not for extrinsic rewards.

51. Flowis enjoyment, not pleasure.

52. It does not seem to be true that work necessarily needs to be unpleasant. It may always have to be hard, or at least harder than doing nothing at all. But there is ample evidence that work can be enjoyable, and that indeed, it is often the most enjoyable part of life. Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience.

53. When?

54. When? 23% several times a day - 15% Never ESM (Experience Sampling Method) Occurs during favourite activity (e.g., gardening, listening to music, cooking, work, driving, etc.) Rarely occurs during passive leisure activities (e.g., watching TV, relaxing)

55. Where? More often during work than during free time! Work: Has goals, feedback, encourages concentration, matches skill (hopefully)

56. What? It is not what you do that counts, but how you do it. Activities themselves are not intrinsically enjoyable or not, but you can do it in a way that is intrinsically rewarding

57. Anxiety, Boredom and Flow(Csikszentmihalyi 1990 - Dots and text added: van Gorp 2006)

59. missed opportunities for creativity & developmentCreative favourable circumstances Reduce distraction

60. harnessing flow 9 Components Clear goals High degree of concentration on limited field of attention Loss of self-consciousness, the merging of action and awareness A distorted sense of time Direct and immediate feedback, behaviour can be adjusted accordingly Balance between ability level and challenge A sense of personal control over the situation Intrinsically rewarding action resulting in effortlessness of action Focus of awareness is narrowed down to the activity itself

61. Work Engagement Work engagement Vigor (energy, persistence, effort) Dedication (enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, challenge) Absorbtion (engrossed, time passes, flow) Schaufeli & Bakker (2004) Burnout Exhaustion (draining of mental energy) Cynicism (negative attitude to work) Reduced professional efficacy (belief that one is no longer effective in fulfilling ones job responsibilities) Lee & Ashforth (1996)

62. Intrinsic Motivation flow fits with Intrinsic Motivation research IM related to Job satisfaction EM related to depression Mastery Goals enhance IM Performance Goals reduce IM

63. Summary Motivation is complicated Competing models – but…

64. “…the recommendations to raise and sustain motivation look alarmingly common-sensical: reinforce performance, create supportive social environments, have clear attainable goals, provide enough resources to do the job, and make sure there is a fit between employee’s and employer’s motives and values.” Furnham (2005: 278)‏

65. Strategy 1. Remove sources of de-motivation, and treat people fairly Strategy 2. Ensure an abundance of valued outcomes of work Strategy 3. Set people goals and objectives Strategy 4. Give people feedback Strategy 5. Design jobs in ways that make them rewarding to people The science of motivation