Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Turbulent Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DESCRIPTION OF ANOMALOUS EFFECTS
4.1 Wall Slip
4.2 Drag Reduction in Polymeric Materials
4.3 Transition Delay by Polymeric Materials
4.4 Drag Reduction in Suspensions
5 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PRESSURE DROP
IN TURBULENT PIPE FLOW IN THE ABSENCE
OF DRAG REDUCTION
5.1 Pressure Drop in the Absence of Wall Slip and
Drag Reduction
5.2 Wall Slip
5.3 Pipe Roughness
5.4 Pipe Fittings
6 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAG REDUCING
POLYMERIC MATERIALS
6.1 General
6.2 Transition Delay
6.3 Pipe Roughness
6.4 Pipe Fittings
7 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAG REDUCING
FIBRE SUSPENSIONS
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
9 NOMENCLATURE
FIGURES
1 DRAG REDUCTION PHENOMENA
2 TRANSITION DELAY PHENOMENA
3 PROCEDURE FOR THE CALCULATION OF
PRESSURE DROP IN TURBULENT NON-NEWTONIAN
PIPE FLOW
4 TYPICAL RELATIONSHIP FOR Ψ VERSUS ʋ*
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian FluidsGerard B. Hawkins
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF PURELY VISCOUS
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
4.1 Experimental Characterization
4.2 Rheological Models
5 PRESSURE DROP-FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS
BASED DIRECTLY ON EXPERIMENTAL DATA
5.1 Use of Shear Stress – Shear Rate Data
5.2 Tubular Viscometer Data
6 PRESSURE DROP – FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON RHEOLOGICAL MODELS
7 LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS
7.1 Entrances Losses
7.2 Expansion Effects
7.3 Contraction Losses
7.4 Valves
7.5 Bends
8 EFFECT OF WALL SLIP
9 VELOCITY PROFILES
9.1 Velocity Profile from Experimental Flow-Curve
9.2 Velocity Profile from Rheological Model
9.3 Residence Time Distribution
10 CHECKS ON THE VALIDITY OF THE
DESIGN PROCEDURES
10.1 Rheological Behavior
10.2 Validity of Experimental Data
10.2 Check on Laminar Flow
11 NOMENCLATURE
12 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 FLOW CURVES FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
2 PLOTS OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 32Q/ɳD3 FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
3 LOG-LOG PLOT OF t VERSUS ý
4 FLOW CURVE FOR A BINGHAM PLASTIC
5 LOG-LOG PLOT FOR A GENERALIZED BINGHAM
PLASTIC
6 CORRELATION OF ENTRANCE LOSS
7 CORRELATION OF EXPANSION LOSS
8 EFFECT OF “WALL SLIP” ON VELOCITY PROFILE
9 D∆P/4L VERSUS Q/ɳR3 WITH WALL SLIP
10 EVALUATION OFUs WITH Ʈw
11 VARIATION OF Us WITH Ʈw
12 PLOT OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 8 (ū- Us)/D FOR
CONDITIONS OF WALL SLIP
13 CUMULATIVE RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
TO POWER LAW FLUIDS
14 EFFECTS OF TUBE LENGTH AND DIAMETER ON
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN D∆P/4L AND 32Q/ɳD3
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy GasesGerard B. Hawkins
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy Gases
This Process Safety Guide has been written with the aim of assisting process engineers, hazard analysts and environmental advisers in carrying out gas dispersion calculations. The Guide aims to provide assistance by:
• Improving awareness of the range of dispersion models available within GBHE, and providing guidance in choosing the most appropriate model for a particular application.
• Providing guidance to ensure that source terms and other model inputs are correctly specified, and the models are used within their range of applicability.
• Providing guidance to deal with particular topics in gas dispersion such as dense gas dispersion, complex terrain, and modeling the chemistry of oxides of nitrogen.
• Providing general background on air quality and dispersion modeling issues such as meteorology and air quality standards.
• Providing example calculations for real practical problems.
SCOPE
The gas dispersion guide contains the following Parts:
1 Fundamentals of meteorology.
2 Overview of air quality standards.
3 Comparison between different air quality models.
4 Designing a stack.
5 Dense gas dispersion.
6 Calculation of source terms.
7 Building wake effects.
8 Overview of the chemistry of the oxides of nitrogen.
9 Overview of the ADMS complex terrain module.
10 Overview of the ADMS deposition module.
11 ADMS examples.
12 Modeling odorous releases.
13 Bibliography of useful gas dispersion books and reports.
14 Glossary of gas dispersion modeling terms.
Appendix A : Modeling Wind Generation of Particulates.
APPENDIX B TABLE OF PROPERTY VALUES FOR SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
How to use the GBHE Reactor Technology Guides
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 THE DECISION TREE
6 GBHE REACTION ENGINEERING
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 Criteria of Reactor Performance
7.2 Factors of Economic Importance
7.3 Physicochemical Mechanisms
8 GENERAL GUIDE TO SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE AND OPERATION
8.1 Choice of Reactor Type
8.2 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics
8.3 Thermodynamics
8.4 Other Factors
9 GENERAL REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
APPENDICES
A RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN DEFINED TERMS
FIGURES
1 DECISION TREE
2 RELATIVE YIELDS OF B FOR BATCH (OR PLUG FLOW) AND CST REACTORS
3 REACTOR SURVEY FORM
Overflows and Gravity Drainage Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 OUTLINE OF THE PROBLEM
5 DESIGNING FOR FLOODED FLOW
6 DESIGNING NON-FLOODED PIPELINES
6.1 Vertical Pipework
6.2 From the Side of a Vessel
6.3 Established (uniform) Flow in Near-horizontal Pipes
6.4 Non-uniform Flow
7 NON-FLOODED FLOW IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS
8 ENTRAINING FLOW
9 SIMPLE TANK OVERFLOWS
9.1 Venting of the Tank
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
11 NOMENCLATURE
TABLE
1 GEOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS OF PART-FULL PIPES
FIGURES
1 TYPICAL SEQUENCE OF SURGING FLOW
2 DESIGNING FOR FLOODED FLOW
3 CAPACITY OF SLOPING PIPELINES
4 OVERFLOW FROM SIDE OF VESSEL
5 METHODS OF AVOIDING LARGE CIRCULAR SIDE
OVERFLOWS
6 CAPACITY OF A GENTLY SLOPING PIPE AS A FUNCTION OF LIQUID DEPTH
7 COMPLEX PIPE SYSTEMS
8 REMOVAL OF ENTRAINED GASES
Design and Rating of Packed Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
5 PERFORMANCE GUARANTEES
6 DESCRIPTION OF PACKED COLUMN INTERNALS
7. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1 Selection of Packing Size
7.2 Rough Design
7.3 Detailed Design and Rating
8 LIQUID DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION
8.1 Basic Concepts
8.2 Pour Point Density
8.3 Peripheral Irrigation - the Wall Zone
8.4 Distributor Levelness
8.5 Maximum Bed Height and Liquid Redistribution
9 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF PACKED COLUMN DESIGN
9.1 Packing
9.2 Support Grid
9.3 Liquid Collector
9.4 Liquid Distributor or Redistributor
9.5 Packing Hold-down Grid
9.6 Reflux or Feed Pipe
9.7 Reboil Return Pipe
9.8 Liquid Draw-offs
9.9 Vapor Draw-offs
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A DEFINITIONS
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A.2 MECHANICAL DEFINITIONS
A.3 PERFORMANCE DEFINITIONS
B PACKING HYDRAULICS - THE NORTON METHOD
TABLES
1 PACKING FACTORS FOR THE MORE COMMON
RANDOM PACKINGS
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian FluidsGerard B. Hawkins
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF PURELY VISCOUS
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
4.1 Experimental Characterization
4.2 Rheological Models
5 PRESSURE DROP-FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS
BASED DIRECTLY ON EXPERIMENTAL DATA
5.1 Use of Shear Stress – Shear Rate Data
5.2 Tubular Viscometer Data
6 PRESSURE DROP – FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON RHEOLOGICAL MODELS
7 LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS
7.1 Entrances Losses
7.2 Expansion Effects
7.3 Contraction Losses
7.4 Valves
7.5 Bends
8 EFFECT OF WALL SLIP
9 VELOCITY PROFILES
9.1 Velocity Profile from Experimental Flow-Curve
9.2 Velocity Profile from Rheological Model
9.3 Residence Time Distribution
10 CHECKS ON THE VALIDITY OF THE
DESIGN PROCEDURES
10.1 Rheological Behavior
10.2 Validity of Experimental Data
10.2 Check on Laminar Flow
11 NOMENCLATURE
12 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 FLOW CURVES FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
2 PLOTS OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 32Q/ɳD3 FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
3 LOG-LOG PLOT OF t VERSUS ý
4 FLOW CURVE FOR A BINGHAM PLASTIC
5 LOG-LOG PLOT FOR A GENERALIZED BINGHAM
PLASTIC
6 CORRELATION OF ENTRANCE LOSS
7 CORRELATION OF EXPANSION LOSS
8 EFFECT OF “WALL SLIP” ON VELOCITY PROFILE
9 D∆P/4L VERSUS Q/ɳR3 WITH WALL SLIP
10 EVALUATION OFUs WITH Ʈw
11 VARIATION OF Us WITH Ʈw
12 PLOT OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 8 (ū- Us)/D FOR
CONDITIONS OF WALL SLIP
13 CUMULATIVE RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
TO POWER LAW FLUIDS
14 EFFECTS OF TUBE LENGTH AND DIAMETER ON
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN D∆P/4L AND 32Q/ɳD3
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy GasesGerard B. Hawkins
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy Gases
This Process Safety Guide has been written with the aim of assisting process engineers, hazard analysts and environmental advisers in carrying out gas dispersion calculations. The Guide aims to provide assistance by:
• Improving awareness of the range of dispersion models available within GBHE, and providing guidance in choosing the most appropriate model for a particular application.
• Providing guidance to ensure that source terms and other model inputs are correctly specified, and the models are used within their range of applicability.
• Providing guidance to deal with particular topics in gas dispersion such as dense gas dispersion, complex terrain, and modeling the chemistry of oxides of nitrogen.
• Providing general background on air quality and dispersion modeling issues such as meteorology and air quality standards.
• Providing example calculations for real practical problems.
SCOPE
The gas dispersion guide contains the following Parts:
1 Fundamentals of meteorology.
2 Overview of air quality standards.
3 Comparison between different air quality models.
4 Designing a stack.
5 Dense gas dispersion.
6 Calculation of source terms.
7 Building wake effects.
8 Overview of the chemistry of the oxides of nitrogen.
9 Overview of the ADMS complex terrain module.
10 Overview of the ADMS deposition module.
11 ADMS examples.
12 Modeling odorous releases.
13 Bibliography of useful gas dispersion books and reports.
14 Glossary of gas dispersion modeling terms.
Appendix A : Modeling Wind Generation of Particulates.
APPENDIX B TABLE OF PROPERTY VALUES FOR SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
How to use the GBHE Reactor Technology Guides
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 THE DECISION TREE
6 GBHE REACTION ENGINEERING
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 Criteria of Reactor Performance
7.2 Factors of Economic Importance
7.3 Physicochemical Mechanisms
8 GENERAL GUIDE TO SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE AND OPERATION
8.1 Choice of Reactor Type
8.2 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics
8.3 Thermodynamics
8.4 Other Factors
9 GENERAL REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
APPENDICES
A RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN DEFINED TERMS
FIGURES
1 DECISION TREE
2 RELATIVE YIELDS OF B FOR BATCH (OR PLUG FLOW) AND CST REACTORS
3 REACTOR SURVEY FORM
Overflows and Gravity Drainage Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 OUTLINE OF THE PROBLEM
5 DESIGNING FOR FLOODED FLOW
6 DESIGNING NON-FLOODED PIPELINES
6.1 Vertical Pipework
6.2 From the Side of a Vessel
6.3 Established (uniform) Flow in Near-horizontal Pipes
6.4 Non-uniform Flow
7 NON-FLOODED FLOW IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS
8 ENTRAINING FLOW
9 SIMPLE TANK OVERFLOWS
9.1 Venting of the Tank
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
11 NOMENCLATURE
TABLE
1 GEOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS OF PART-FULL PIPES
FIGURES
1 TYPICAL SEQUENCE OF SURGING FLOW
2 DESIGNING FOR FLOODED FLOW
3 CAPACITY OF SLOPING PIPELINES
4 OVERFLOW FROM SIDE OF VESSEL
5 METHODS OF AVOIDING LARGE CIRCULAR SIDE
OVERFLOWS
6 CAPACITY OF A GENTLY SLOPING PIPE AS A FUNCTION OF LIQUID DEPTH
7 COMPLEX PIPE SYSTEMS
8 REMOVAL OF ENTRAINED GASES
Design and Rating of Packed Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
5 PERFORMANCE GUARANTEES
6 DESCRIPTION OF PACKED COLUMN INTERNALS
7. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1 Selection of Packing Size
7.2 Rough Design
7.3 Detailed Design and Rating
8 LIQUID DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION
8.1 Basic Concepts
8.2 Pour Point Density
8.3 Peripheral Irrigation - the Wall Zone
8.4 Distributor Levelness
8.5 Maximum Bed Height and Liquid Redistribution
9 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF PACKED COLUMN DESIGN
9.1 Packing
9.2 Support Grid
9.3 Liquid Collector
9.4 Liquid Distributor or Redistributor
9.5 Packing Hold-down Grid
9.6 Reflux or Feed Pipe
9.7 Reboil Return Pipe
9.8 Liquid Draw-offs
9.9 Vapor Draw-offs
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A DEFINITIONS
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A.2 MECHANICAL DEFINITIONS
A.3 PERFORMANCE DEFINITIONS
B PACKING HYDRAULICS - THE NORTON METHOD
TABLES
1 PACKING FACTORS FOR THE MORE COMMON
RANDOM PACKINGS
Large Water Pumps
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
SECTION ONE: INTEGRATION OF PUMPS INTO THE PROCESS
2 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
2.1 Cooling Water
2.2 Brine
2.3 Estuary Water
2.4 Harbor Water
2.5 Oil-field water
3 CALCULATION OF DUTY
4 CHOICE OF TYPE AND NUMBER OF PUMPS
4.1 Type of Pump
4.2 Points to Consider
4.3 Number of Pumps
5 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM
5.1 Check List for Each Pump
6 RECOMMENDED LAYOUT
SECTION TWO: CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
7 HORIZONTAL, AXIALLY SPLIT CASING PUMPS
7.1 Pressure Casing
7.2 Bolting
7.3 Flanges and Connections
7.4 Rotating Elements
7.5 Wear Rings
7.6 Running Clearances
7.7 Mechanical Seals
7.8 Packed Glands
7.9 Bearings and Bearing Housings
7.10 Lubrication
7.11 Couplings
7.12 Guards
7.13 Baseplates
7.14 Flywheels
8 VERTICAL PUMPS
8.1 General
8.2 Pressure Casing
8.3 Bolting
8.4 Flanges and Connections
8.5 Rotating Element
8.6 Packed Glands
8.7 Bearings and Bearing Housings
8.8 Pump Head
8.9 Column Pipes
8.10 Line Shaft and Couplings
8.11 Reverse Rotation
8.12 Gearboxes
9 MATERIALS
9.1 Castings
9.2 Casings
9.3 Impellers
9.4 Shafts
9.5 Shaft Sleeves
9.6 Bolts and Nuts
10 DRIVERS
10.1 Electric Motor Drives
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES:
A COOLING WATER - EUROPEAN SITE
B TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY
C FLYWHEEL INERTIA FOR PRESSURE SURGE ABATEMENT
D RESIN COATING OF CASINGS FOR WATER PUMPS
E AREA RATIO METHOD
F NOTES ON PUMP IMPELLERS CASTINGS
G LIMIT ON SHAFT DIAMETER FOR HORIZONTAL PUMPS HAVING
ONE DOUBLE-ENTRY IMPELLER SUPPORTED BETWEEN BEARINGS
H FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ON RISING MAIN ASSEMBLY
I POWER COSTS
J PUTATIVE COST COMPARISON SHEET
K TECHNICAL COMPARISON SHEETS
FIGURES
2.1 VAPOR TEMPERATURE CURVES
2.2 DENSITY TEMPERATURE CURVES
3.1 TYPICAL HEAD OF PUMPS
3.2 TOTAL HEAD OF VERTICAL IMMERSED PUMP
3.3 TYPICAL TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY LEVELS
3.5 SUBMERGENCE LIMITS
4.1 TYPES OF PUMP
4.2 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
5.1 TYPICAL LINE DIAGRAM
6 GUIDE TO SUCTION PIPEWORK DESIGN
7 CASING AND IMPELLER DETAILS
8.1 DRY WELL AND WET WELL PUMP INSTALLATIONS
8.2 BELLMOUTH DIMENSIONS FOR VERTICAL INTAKES
8.3 MAXIMUM SPACING BETWEEN SHAFT GUIDE BUSHING
8.4 LINE SHAFT COUPLING
9 TYPICAL VOLUTE CASING
10 TYPICAL CASE WEAR RINGS
11 SEAL AREA
TABLES
1 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (25% W/W)
2 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (20% W/W)
3 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (16.25% W/W)
4 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (15% W/W)
5 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (10% W/W)
6 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (5% W/W)
7 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
8 RECOMMENDED CAST MATERIALS FOR USE IN THE PUMP INDUSTRY
GRAPHS
1 GUIDE TO ROTOR INERTIA
2 LIMITS BETWEEN BEARINGS
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DESIGN GUIDE
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 STANDARD DIMENSIONS
4.1 Shell Diameters
4.2 Tube Lengths
4.3 Tube Diameters
4.4 Tube Wall Thicknesses
5 CLEARANCES
5.1 Tube Pitch
5.2 Pass Partition Lane Widths
5.3 Minimum 'U' Bend Clearance
5.4 Tube-to-Baffle Clearance
5.5 Baffle-to-Shell Clearance
5.6 Bundle-to-Shell Clearance
6 TUBESHEET THICKNESS
7 END ZONE LENGTHS
8 TUBE COUNTS
8.1 Program Correlations
8.2 Use of Tube count Tables
8.3 Graphical Layout
8.4 Use of Computer Programs
8.5 Tie Rods
TABLES
1 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
150 FLANGE
2 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
300 FLANGE
3 TEMA TIE ROD STANDARDS
FIGURES
1 DEFINITION OF TUBE PITCH, LIGAMENT THICKNESS & PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH
2 DEFINITION OF PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH FOR U-TUBES
3 BUNDLE TO SHELL CLEARANCES FOR DIFFERENT BUNDLE TYPES
4 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR FIXED TUBE CONSTRUCTION
5 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR U-TUBE CONSTRUCTION
6 END ZONE
7 EXAMPLE OF OPTU3 GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
Gas Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
PLUG FLOW
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
BACKMIXED INITIAL ZONE
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Batch Distillation
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THE DESIGN
4.1 General
4.2 Choice of batch/continuous operation
4.3 Boiling point curve and cut policy
4.4 Method of design
4.5 Scope of calculations required for design
5 SIMPLE BATCH DISTILLATION
6 FRACTIONAL BATCH DISTILLATION
6.1 General
6.2 Approximate methods
6.3 Rigorous design - use of a computer model
6.4 Other factors influencing the design
6.4.1 Occupation
6.4.2 Choice of Batch Rectification or Stripping
6.4.3 Batch size
6.4.4 Initial estimate of cut policy
6.4.5 Liquid Holdup
6.4.6 Total reflux operation and heating-up time
6.4.7 Column operating pressure
6.5 Optimum Design of the Batch Still
6.6 Special design problems
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1 Kettle reboilers
7.2 Column Internals
7.3 Condensers and reflux split boxes
8 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION IN
BATCH DISTILLATION
9 MECHANICAL DESIGN FEATURES
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A McCABE - THIELE METHOD - TYPICAL EXAMPLE
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE INTEGRATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
5 THE EDDY VISCOSITY FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG REDUCING FLUIDS
6 THE CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENTS FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG
REDUCING FLUIDS IN TURBULENT PIPE FLOW
6.1 General
6.2 Drag Reducing Fibre Suspensions
6.3 Transition Delay
7 NOMENCLATURE
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pumps for Hydrocarbon Service
1 SCOPE
2 HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2.1 General
2.2 Pure Hydrocarbons
2.3 Associated Compounds
2.4 Crude Oil
2.5 Toxicology
2.6 Cavitation
2.7 Velocity of Sound
3 FLAMMABILITY HAZARDS
3.1 General
3.2 Definitions
3.3 The Electrical Area Classification
4 CHOICE OF PUMP TYPE
5 LINE DIAGRAM (PROCESS)
6 LAYOUT
7 SHAFT SEALS
7.1 Selection
7.2 Engineering of Seals
8 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
8.1 General
8.2 Effects of Low Density
9 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
9.1 Process Wetted Parts
9.2 Mechanical Components
9.3 Non Metallic’s
APPENDIX A - BARNARD & WEIR SEAL THEORY FIGURES
1 VAPOR PRESSURE OF HYDROCARBONS
2 VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIGHT HYDROCARBONS
3 VAPOR PRESSURE OF GASOLINES
4 SPECIFIC HEAT OF HYDROCARBON LIQUIDS
5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF OLEFINE, DI OLEFINES AND PARAFFINS
6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AROMATICS
7 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR PARAFFINS, AROMATICS
AND PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
8 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR MINERAL LUBRICATING
OILS
TABLES
1 PURE HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2A CRUDE OILS PROPERTIES
2B NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL, NAPHTHAS AND KEROSENE
2C NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF GAS OILS AND RESIDUES
3 PURE HYROCARBON FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pumps for Ammonium Nitrate Service
Engineering Design Guide: GBHE-EDG-MAC-1503
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
SECTION ONE: INTEGRATION OF PUMPS INTO THE PROCESS
2 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
2.1 Decomposition
2.2 Combustion
2.3 Detonation
2.4 Deliquescence
2.5 Density
2.6 Viscosity
2.7 Vapor Pressure
2.8 Freezing Point
2.9 Specific Heat
2.10 Surface Tension
2.11 Thermal Conductivity
3 CALCULATION OF DUTY
3.1 Centrifugal Pumps
4 CHOICE OF PUMP TYPE
4.1 Centrifugal Pumps
4.2 Rotary Pumps
4.3 Reciprocating Pumps
5 LINE DIAGRAMS
5.1 Centrifugal Pumps with Mechanical Seals
5.2 Vertical Suspended Cantilever Shaft Pumps for
Melt Service
5.3 Horizontal Self-Priming Pumps
5.4 Reciprocating Pumps
5.5 Seal Water Supply System
6 LAYOUT
6.1 Vertical Cantilever Shaft Pumps - Tank Proportions
SECTION TWO: CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF PUMPS
7 SEALS FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
7.1 Below 30% AN
7.2 30-45% AN
7.3 45-90% AN
7.4 Above 90% AN
8 PACKED GLANDS FOR RECIPROCATING PUMPS
8.1 Below 90% AN
9 SEAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
10 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
10.1 Casing
10.2 Rotor
10.3 Bearing Lubrication
10.4 Coupling
10.5 Baseplate
11 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF VERTICAL CANTILEVER SHAFT IMMERSED PUMPS
11.1 Motor
11.2 Insulation and Jacketing
11.3 Rotor
11.4 Bearing Lubrication
11.5 Preservation
12 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS
12.1 Speed Limits
12.2 Casing and Gearbox
12.3 Couplings
13 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
13.1 Recommended Materials
13.2 Forbidden Materials
APPENDIX A: BEARING LUBRICANTS
FIGURES
2.5.1 DENSITY OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.5.2 DENSITY OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.6 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.7.1 WATER VAPOR PRESSURE ABOVE AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.7.2 AMMONIA VAPOR PRESSURE FOR AM!AMMONIUM NITRATE MELT
2.8 FREEZING POINT OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.9 SPECIFIC HEAT OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
4 SELECTION OF PUMP TYPE
5. 1 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS WITH MECHANICAL SEALS
5.2 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM: VERTICAL SUSPENDED CANTILEVER PUMPS
5.3 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM: HORIZONTAL SELF
PRIMING PUMPS
5.4 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM: RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS
5.5 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM SEAL: WATER PUMPS AND INJECTION PUMP SYSTEMS
7.2 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SEAL WITH NO INJECTION FLUSH
7.3 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF CRANE TYPE 52B WITH 'J' SEAT INCORPORATING TETRALIPS INBOARD AND OUTBOARD
7.4 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF LABYRINTH SEAL FOR VERTICAL SUSPENDED CANTILEVER SHAFT PUMPS
8.1 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SOFT PACKED GLAND FOR RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS FOR DELIVERY PRESSURES UP TO 10 BAR G.
12 TEMPERATURES ATTAINED ON DISSOLUTION OF ANHYDROUS CAUSTIC SODA
TABLES
13.1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
13.2 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION VERTICAL CANTILEVER
SHAFT IMMERSED PUMPS
13.3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat IntegrationGerard B. Hawkins
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat Integration
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SEQUENCING OF SIMPLE COLUMNS
4.1 Sidestream Columns
4.2 Multi-Feed Columns
5 SIMPLE COLUMN SEQUENCING AND HEAT
INTEGRATION INTERACTIONS
5.1 Energy Quantity and Quality
5.2 Heat Integration within the Total Flowsheet
6 COMPLEX COLUMN ARRANGEMENTS
6.1 Indirect Sequence with Vapor Link
6.2 Sidestream Systems
6.3 Pre-Fractionator Systems
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS AND HEAT INTEGRATION
INTERACTIONS
FIGURES
1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEQUENCES
2 A SINGLE SIDESTREAM COLUMN REPLACING 2
SIMPLE COLUMNS
3 A TYPICAL MULTI-FEED COLUMN
4 TYPICAL GRAND COMPOSITION CURVE
5 TYPICAL INDIRECT SEQUENCE WITH VAPOUR LINK
6 SIDESTREAM STRIPPER AND SIDESTREAM
RECTIFIER
7 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
8 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
9 PETLYUK COLUMN
Gas-Solid-Liquid Mixing Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
5 THREE-PHASE MASS TRANSFER WITH CHEMICAL REACTION
6 STIRRED VESSEL DESIGN
6.1 Agitator Design
6.2 Design for Solids Suspension
6.3 Vessel Design
6.4 Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Coefficient and Surface Area
7 THREE-PHASE FLUIDIZED BEDS
7.1 Gas and Liquid Hold-Up
7.2 Calculation Procedure
7.3 Bubble Size
7.4 Mass Transfer
7.5 Heat Transfer
7.6 Elutriation
8 SLURRY REACTORS
8.1 Gas Rate
8.2 Mass Transfer
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fouling Resistances for Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL
5 COOLING WATER FOULING
6 CHROMATE SYSTEMS
6.1 General
6.2 Constraints
6.3 Requirements
6.4 Fouling resistances
7 NON-CHROMATE SYSTEMS
7.1 General
7.2 Requirements and Constraints
7.3 Fouling resistances
8 UNTREATED COOLING WATER
9 MATERIALS OTHER THAN MILD STEEL
APPENDICES
A FOULING RESISTANCES FOR COOLING WATER
B FOULING FILM THICKNESS
Estimation of Pressure Drop in Pipe Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 units
4 SOURCES OF DATA
5 BASIC CONCEPTS
5.1 Equation for Pressure Change in a Flowing
Fluid
5.2 Static and Stagnation Pressures
5.3 Sonic Flow
6 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
6.1 Straight Circular Pipes
6.2 Ducts of Non-circular Cross-section
6.3 Coils
6.4 General Equation for Incompressible Flow
in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
7.1 Isothermal Flow
7.2 Adiabatic Flow
7.3 Estimation of Pressure Drop for Adiabatic
Flow in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7.4 Ratio of Isothermal to Adiabatic Pressure Drop
8 FLOW IN PIPE FITTINGS
8.1 Incompressible Flow
8.2 Compressible Flow
9 FLOW IN BENDS
9.1 Incompressible Flow in Bends
9.2 Compressible Flow in Bends
10 CHANGES IN CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
11 ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURIS
11.1 Incompressible Flow through an Orifice
11.2 Compressible Flow through an Orifice or Nozzle
11.3 Venturi Choke Tubes
12 VALVES
12.1 General
12.2 Incompressible Flow in Valves
12.2 Compressible Flow in Valves
13 COMBINING AND DIVIDING FLOW
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
14 COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR FLUID FLOW
15 NOMENCLATURE
16 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
B COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES
C THE ‘TWO-K’ METHOD FOR FITTING PRESSURE LOSS
VLE Data - Selection and Use
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF IDEAL
AND NON-IDEAL SYSTEMS
4.1 Ideal Mixtures
4.2 Non-Ideal Mixtures
5 REVIEW OF VLE MODELS
5.1 Ideal Behavior in Both Phases
5.2 Liquid Phase Non-Idealities
5.3 High Pressure Systems
5.4 Special Models
6 SETTING UP A VLE MODEL
6.1 Define Problem
6.2 Select Data
6.3 Select Correlation(s)
6.4 Produce Model
7 AVOIDING PITFALLS
7.1 Experimental Data is Better than Estimates
7.2 Check Validity of Fitted Model
7.3 Check Limitations of Estimation Methods
7.4 Know Your System
7.5 Appreciate Errors and Effects
7.6 If in Doubt – Ask
8 A CASE STUDY
8.1 The Problem
8.2 The System
8.3 Data Available
8.4 Selected Correlation
8.5 Simulation
8.6 Selection of Model
9 RECOMMENDED READING
10 VLE EXPERTS IN GBHE
APPENDICES
A USE OF EXTENDED ANTOINE EQUATION
B USE OF WILSON EQUATION
C USEFUL METHODS OF ESTIMATING
D EQUATIONS OF STATE FOR VLE CALCULATIONS
TABLES
1 SUMMARY OF VLE METHODS
2 LIST OF USEFUL REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - IDEAL SOLUTION
BEHAVIOR
2 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - A GENERALISED
Y-X DIAGRAM
3 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
4 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MAXIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
5 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE -TWO LIQUID PHASES
6 SENSITIVITY TO ERROR IN VLE DATA (BASED ON FENSKE EQUATION)
7(a) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE A
7(b) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE B
7(c) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE C
Mixing of Miscible Liquids
Mixing of Miscible Liquids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
4.1 Mechanically Agitated Vessels
4.2 Jet Mixed Vessels
4.3 Tubular ('Flow') Mixers
5 AGITATED VESSELS
5.1 Mixing Time for Liquids in Stirred Tanks
5.2 Power Requirements
5.3 Vortex Formation and Surface Entrainment in Unbaffled and Baffled Vessels
5.4 Heat-Transfer in Stirred Vessels
5.5 Flow and Circulation
6 JET MIXED TANKS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Recommended Configuration
6.3 Design Procedure
6.4 Design for Continuous Mixing
7 TUBULAR JET FLOW MIXERS FOR MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
7.1 Recommended Configurations
7.2 Mixer Design
7.3 Additional Considerations
8 MOTIONLESS MIXERS
8.1 Recommended Types
8.2 Correlations
TABLES
1 TYPICAL CONSTANTS FOR EQUATION (1)
2 POWER CURVES FIGURES AND CORRECTION FACTORS
3 VORTEX PARAMETERS, TURBINE, PROPELLER AND SAWTOOTH
4 CHARGING A HOT VESSEL WITH A COLD PRODUCT
5 INJECTING A HOT FLUID INTO THE JACKET OF A COLD VESSEL
6 TYPICAL DISCHARGE COEFFICIENTS
7 CONSTRAINTS FOR LAMINAR FLOW MOTIONLESS MIXERS
8 CONSTANTS FOR TURBULENT FLOW MOTIONLESS MIXERS
9 LENGTH FACTORS FOR HIGH VISCOSITY RATIOS
FIGURES
1 POWER NUMBERS FOR 45° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
2 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR DIAMETER RATIOS
3 BLADE ANGLE AND THICKNESS CORRECTION FACTORS
4 POWER NUMBERS FOR SINGLE 60° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
5 POWER NUMBERS FOR TWIN 60° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
6 POWER NUMBERS FOR TRIPLE 60° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
7 BAFFLE WIDTH AND NUMBER CORRECTION FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT DIAMETER RATIOS
8 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR SUBMERGENCE
9 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR SEPARATION
10 POWER NUMBERS FOR DISC-TURBINES
11 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR BAFFLES
12 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR BASE CLEARANCE
13 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR SUBMERGENCE
14 POWER NUMBERS FOR RETREAT-CURVE IMPELLERS
15 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR PARTIAL BAFFLES
16 POWER NUMBERS CORRECTION FACTORS FOR RETREAT-CURVE AND IMPELLERS H/T RATIOS OF 2.0
17 POWER NUMBERS FOR FLAT-BLADED TURBINES
18 BOTTOM CLEARANCE CORRECTION FACTOR
19 POWER NUMBERS FOR ANCHOR AND GATE AGITATORS
20 POWER NUMBERS FOR PROPELLERS
21 IMPELLER SPACING CORRECTION FACTORS
22 STANDARD NOTATION FOR VORTEX CALCULATIONS
23 VORTEX DATA FOR 2 - BLADED PADDLES
(W/D = 0.33, T/D = 2)
24 VORTEX CORRECTION FACTORS FOR PADDLES
25 JET DIRECTION
26 SINGLE JET MIXERS
27 MULTIJET MIXERS
28 SERIES ARRANGEMENT OF MIXERS
29 BATCH MIXERS
30 DESIGN PROCEDURE
31 EMPIRICAL FACTORS
32 RECIRCULATION ZONES
33 FRICTION FACTOR DATA FOR KENICS AND SULZER MIXERS
Study 1: Concept Hazard Review
CONTENTS
1.0 PURPOSE
1.0.1 Team
1.0.2 Timing
1.0.3 Preparation
1.0.4 Documentation
HAZARD STUDY 1: APPLICATION
1.1 Project Definition
1.2 Process Description
1.3 Materials Hazards
1.4 External Authorities
1.5 Organization and Human Factors
1.6 Additional Activities to be Completed
1.7 Review of Hazard Study 1
APPENDICES
A Chemical Hazard Guide Diagram
B Safety Risk Criteria - Limit Values for Tolerable Risk
C List of Additional Assessments
Hydrogen Compressors
Engineering Design Guide
1 SCOPE
2 PHYSICAL ROPERTIES
2.1 Data for Pure Hydrogen
2.2 Influence of Impurities
3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Hydrogen from Electrolytic Cells
3.2 Pure Hydrogen
4 DESIGN
4.1 Pulsation
4.2 Bypass
5 TESTING OR COMMISSIONING RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
6 LUBRICATION
7 LAYOUT
8 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 MOLLIER CHART - HYDROGEN
2 COMPRESSIBILITY CHART
3 NELSON DIAGRAM
4 WATER CONTENT IN HYDROGEN FOR OIL-LUBRICATED COMPRESSORS AS GRAMM/M2 SWEPT CYLINDER AREA
LOADING AND START-UP: ADSORBENTS AND ADSORPTION UNITS
PHILOSOPHY
PACKAGING AND INSPECTION
LOADING
1.1 Vessel Inspection
1.2 Loading of Bottom Support Material
1.3 Loading of Sieve
1.4 Special Precautions in the Case of PSA and VPSA Applications
1.5 Loading of Top Support Material
1.6 The vessel should then be closed in ready for process start-up.
2. START-UP
2.1 Check list before Commencing Start-up
3. INITIAL REGENERATION
3.1 Regeneration Gas Availability
3.2 Initial Regeneration Procedure
4. PROCESS START-UP
Thermal Design Margins for Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TERMINOLOGY
5 REASONS FOR SPECIFYING A DESIGN MARGIN
5.1 Instantaneous Rates
5.2 Future Uprating
5.3 Plant Upsets
5.4 Process Control
5.5 Uncertainties in Properties
5.6 Uncertainties in Design Methods
5.7 Fouling
6 COMBINATION OF DESIGN MARGINS
7 CRITICAL AND NON-CRITICAL DUTIES
7.1 General
7.2 Penalties of Over-design
8 OPTIMIZATION OF EXCHANGER DUTY
9 WAYS OF PROVIDING DESIGN MARGINS
9.1 The Provision of Excess Surface
9.2 Decreasing the Design Temperature Difference
9.3 Increasing the Design Process Throughput
9.4 Increasing the Design Fouling Resistance
9.5 Reducing the Design Process Outlet Temperature Approach
9.6 Adjusting the Physical Properties
10 ACCURACY OF THE DESIGN METHODS FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
10.1 Pressure Drop
10.2 Heat Transfer
11 SUGGESTED DESIGN MARGINS
11.1 No Phase Change Duties
11.2 Condensers
11.3 Boilers
12 EFFECT OF UNDER- OR OVER-SURFACE ON PERFORMANCE
FIGURES
1 EFFECT OF LENGTH ON EXCHANGER DUTY COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0
2 EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TUBES ON EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0, ALL RESISTANCE IN TUBES
3 EFFECT OF TUBE LENGTH ON NUMBER OF TUBES, AREA AND PRESSURE DROP
Physical Properties for Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 COMPONENT PROPERTIES
4.1 General
4.2 Use of Component Properties for Mixtures
5 INPUT OF MIXTURE CURVES
5.1 General
5.2 Generation of the Mixture Curves
5.3 Selection of Temperature Points
5.4 Extrapolation
6 IMMISCIBLE CONDENSATES
FIGURES
1 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR EQUAL ENTHALPY CHANGE
2 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR GOOD
FIT TO CURVE
Large Water Pumps
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
SECTION ONE: INTEGRATION OF PUMPS INTO THE PROCESS
2 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
2.1 Cooling Water
2.2 Brine
2.3 Estuary Water
2.4 Harbor Water
2.5 Oil-field water
3 CALCULATION OF DUTY
4 CHOICE OF TYPE AND NUMBER OF PUMPS
4.1 Type of Pump
4.2 Points to Consider
4.3 Number of Pumps
5 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM
5.1 Check List for Each Pump
6 RECOMMENDED LAYOUT
SECTION TWO: CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
7 HORIZONTAL, AXIALLY SPLIT CASING PUMPS
7.1 Pressure Casing
7.2 Bolting
7.3 Flanges and Connections
7.4 Rotating Elements
7.5 Wear Rings
7.6 Running Clearances
7.7 Mechanical Seals
7.8 Packed Glands
7.9 Bearings and Bearing Housings
7.10 Lubrication
7.11 Couplings
7.12 Guards
7.13 Baseplates
7.14 Flywheels
8 VERTICAL PUMPS
8.1 General
8.2 Pressure Casing
8.3 Bolting
8.4 Flanges and Connections
8.5 Rotating Element
8.6 Packed Glands
8.7 Bearings and Bearing Housings
8.8 Pump Head
8.9 Column Pipes
8.10 Line Shaft and Couplings
8.11 Reverse Rotation
8.12 Gearboxes
9 MATERIALS
9.1 Castings
9.2 Casings
9.3 Impellers
9.4 Shafts
9.5 Shaft Sleeves
9.6 Bolts and Nuts
10 DRIVERS
10.1 Electric Motor Drives
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES:
A COOLING WATER - EUROPEAN SITE
B TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY
C FLYWHEEL INERTIA FOR PRESSURE SURGE ABATEMENT
D RESIN COATING OF CASINGS FOR WATER PUMPS
E AREA RATIO METHOD
F NOTES ON PUMP IMPELLERS CASTINGS
G LIMIT ON SHAFT DIAMETER FOR HORIZONTAL PUMPS HAVING
ONE DOUBLE-ENTRY IMPELLER SUPPORTED BETWEEN BEARINGS
H FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ON RISING MAIN ASSEMBLY
I POWER COSTS
J PUTATIVE COST COMPARISON SHEET
K TECHNICAL COMPARISON SHEETS
FIGURES
2.1 VAPOR TEMPERATURE CURVES
2.2 DENSITY TEMPERATURE CURVES
3.1 TYPICAL HEAD OF PUMPS
3.2 TOTAL HEAD OF VERTICAL IMMERSED PUMP
3.3 TYPICAL TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY LEVELS
3.5 SUBMERGENCE LIMITS
4.1 TYPES OF PUMP
4.2 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
5.1 TYPICAL LINE DIAGRAM
6 GUIDE TO SUCTION PIPEWORK DESIGN
7 CASING AND IMPELLER DETAILS
8.1 DRY WELL AND WET WELL PUMP INSTALLATIONS
8.2 BELLMOUTH DIMENSIONS FOR VERTICAL INTAKES
8.3 MAXIMUM SPACING BETWEEN SHAFT GUIDE BUSHING
8.4 LINE SHAFT COUPLING
9 TYPICAL VOLUTE CASING
10 TYPICAL CASE WEAR RINGS
11 SEAL AREA
TABLES
1 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (25% W/W)
2 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (20% W/W)
3 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (16.25% W/W)
4 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (15% W/W)
5 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (10% W/W)
6 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (5% W/W)
7 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
8 RECOMMENDED CAST MATERIALS FOR USE IN THE PUMP INDUSTRY
GRAPHS
1 GUIDE TO ROTOR INERTIA
2 LIMITS BETWEEN BEARINGS
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DESIGN GUIDE
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 STANDARD DIMENSIONS
4.1 Shell Diameters
4.2 Tube Lengths
4.3 Tube Diameters
4.4 Tube Wall Thicknesses
5 CLEARANCES
5.1 Tube Pitch
5.2 Pass Partition Lane Widths
5.3 Minimum 'U' Bend Clearance
5.4 Tube-to-Baffle Clearance
5.5 Baffle-to-Shell Clearance
5.6 Bundle-to-Shell Clearance
6 TUBESHEET THICKNESS
7 END ZONE LENGTHS
8 TUBE COUNTS
8.1 Program Correlations
8.2 Use of Tube count Tables
8.3 Graphical Layout
8.4 Use of Computer Programs
8.5 Tie Rods
TABLES
1 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
150 FLANGE
2 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
300 FLANGE
3 TEMA TIE ROD STANDARDS
FIGURES
1 DEFINITION OF TUBE PITCH, LIGAMENT THICKNESS & PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH
2 DEFINITION OF PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH FOR U-TUBES
3 BUNDLE TO SHELL CLEARANCES FOR DIFFERENT BUNDLE TYPES
4 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR FIXED TUBE CONSTRUCTION
5 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR U-TUBE CONSTRUCTION
6 END ZONE
7 EXAMPLE OF OPTU3 GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
Gas Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
PLUG FLOW
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
BACKMIXED INITIAL ZONE
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Batch Distillation
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THE DESIGN
4.1 General
4.2 Choice of batch/continuous operation
4.3 Boiling point curve and cut policy
4.4 Method of design
4.5 Scope of calculations required for design
5 SIMPLE BATCH DISTILLATION
6 FRACTIONAL BATCH DISTILLATION
6.1 General
6.2 Approximate methods
6.3 Rigorous design - use of a computer model
6.4 Other factors influencing the design
6.4.1 Occupation
6.4.2 Choice of Batch Rectification or Stripping
6.4.3 Batch size
6.4.4 Initial estimate of cut policy
6.4.5 Liquid Holdup
6.4.6 Total reflux operation and heating-up time
6.4.7 Column operating pressure
6.5 Optimum Design of the Batch Still
6.6 Special design problems
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1 Kettle reboilers
7.2 Column Internals
7.3 Condensers and reflux split boxes
8 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION IN
BATCH DISTILLATION
9 MECHANICAL DESIGN FEATURES
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A McCABE - THIELE METHOD - TYPICAL EXAMPLE
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE INTEGRATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
5 THE EDDY VISCOSITY FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG REDUCING FLUIDS
6 THE CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENTS FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG
REDUCING FLUIDS IN TURBULENT PIPE FLOW
6.1 General
6.2 Drag Reducing Fibre Suspensions
6.3 Transition Delay
7 NOMENCLATURE
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pumps for Hydrocarbon Service
1 SCOPE
2 HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2.1 General
2.2 Pure Hydrocarbons
2.3 Associated Compounds
2.4 Crude Oil
2.5 Toxicology
2.6 Cavitation
2.7 Velocity of Sound
3 FLAMMABILITY HAZARDS
3.1 General
3.2 Definitions
3.3 The Electrical Area Classification
4 CHOICE OF PUMP TYPE
5 LINE DIAGRAM (PROCESS)
6 LAYOUT
7 SHAFT SEALS
7.1 Selection
7.2 Engineering of Seals
8 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
8.1 General
8.2 Effects of Low Density
9 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
9.1 Process Wetted Parts
9.2 Mechanical Components
9.3 Non Metallic’s
APPENDIX A - BARNARD & WEIR SEAL THEORY FIGURES
1 VAPOR PRESSURE OF HYDROCARBONS
2 VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIGHT HYDROCARBONS
3 VAPOR PRESSURE OF GASOLINES
4 SPECIFIC HEAT OF HYDROCARBON LIQUIDS
5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF OLEFINE, DI OLEFINES AND PARAFFINS
6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AROMATICS
7 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR PARAFFINS, AROMATICS
AND PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
8 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR MINERAL LUBRICATING
OILS
TABLES
1 PURE HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2A CRUDE OILS PROPERTIES
2B NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL, NAPHTHAS AND KEROSENE
2C NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF GAS OILS AND RESIDUES
3 PURE HYROCARBON FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pumps for Ammonium Nitrate Service
Engineering Design Guide: GBHE-EDG-MAC-1503
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
SECTION ONE: INTEGRATION OF PUMPS INTO THE PROCESS
2 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
2.1 Decomposition
2.2 Combustion
2.3 Detonation
2.4 Deliquescence
2.5 Density
2.6 Viscosity
2.7 Vapor Pressure
2.8 Freezing Point
2.9 Specific Heat
2.10 Surface Tension
2.11 Thermal Conductivity
3 CALCULATION OF DUTY
3.1 Centrifugal Pumps
4 CHOICE OF PUMP TYPE
4.1 Centrifugal Pumps
4.2 Rotary Pumps
4.3 Reciprocating Pumps
5 LINE DIAGRAMS
5.1 Centrifugal Pumps with Mechanical Seals
5.2 Vertical Suspended Cantilever Shaft Pumps for
Melt Service
5.3 Horizontal Self-Priming Pumps
5.4 Reciprocating Pumps
5.5 Seal Water Supply System
6 LAYOUT
6.1 Vertical Cantilever Shaft Pumps - Tank Proportions
SECTION TWO: CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF PUMPS
7 SEALS FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
7.1 Below 30% AN
7.2 30-45% AN
7.3 45-90% AN
7.4 Above 90% AN
8 PACKED GLANDS FOR RECIPROCATING PUMPS
8.1 Below 90% AN
9 SEAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
10 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
10.1 Casing
10.2 Rotor
10.3 Bearing Lubrication
10.4 Coupling
10.5 Baseplate
11 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF VERTICAL CANTILEVER SHAFT IMMERSED PUMPS
11.1 Motor
11.2 Insulation and Jacketing
11.3 Rotor
11.4 Bearing Lubrication
11.5 Preservation
12 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS
12.1 Speed Limits
12.2 Casing and Gearbox
12.3 Couplings
13 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
13.1 Recommended Materials
13.2 Forbidden Materials
APPENDIX A: BEARING LUBRICANTS
FIGURES
2.5.1 DENSITY OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.5.2 DENSITY OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.6 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.7.1 WATER VAPOR PRESSURE ABOVE AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.7.2 AMMONIA VAPOR PRESSURE FOR AM!AMMONIUM NITRATE MELT
2.8 FREEZING POINT OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
2.9 SPECIFIC HEAT OF AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTIONS
4 SELECTION OF PUMP TYPE
5. 1 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS WITH MECHANICAL SEALS
5.2 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM: VERTICAL SUSPENDED CANTILEVER PUMPS
5.3 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM: HORIZONTAL SELF
PRIMING PUMPS
5.4 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM: RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS
5.5 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM SEAL: WATER PUMPS AND INJECTION PUMP SYSTEMS
7.2 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SEAL WITH NO INJECTION FLUSH
7.3 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF CRANE TYPE 52B WITH 'J' SEAT INCORPORATING TETRALIPS INBOARD AND OUTBOARD
7.4 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF LABYRINTH SEAL FOR VERTICAL SUSPENDED CANTILEVER SHAFT PUMPS
8.1 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SOFT PACKED GLAND FOR RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS FOR DELIVERY PRESSURES UP TO 10 BAR G.
12 TEMPERATURES ATTAINED ON DISSOLUTION OF ANHYDROUS CAUSTIC SODA
TABLES
13.1 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
13.2 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION VERTICAL CANTILEVER
SHAFT IMMERSED PUMPS
13.3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION RECIPROCATING PLUNGER PUMPS
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat IntegrationGerard B. Hawkins
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat Integration
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SEQUENCING OF SIMPLE COLUMNS
4.1 Sidestream Columns
4.2 Multi-Feed Columns
5 SIMPLE COLUMN SEQUENCING AND HEAT
INTEGRATION INTERACTIONS
5.1 Energy Quantity and Quality
5.2 Heat Integration within the Total Flowsheet
6 COMPLEX COLUMN ARRANGEMENTS
6.1 Indirect Sequence with Vapor Link
6.2 Sidestream Systems
6.3 Pre-Fractionator Systems
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS AND HEAT INTEGRATION
INTERACTIONS
FIGURES
1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEQUENCES
2 A SINGLE SIDESTREAM COLUMN REPLACING 2
SIMPLE COLUMNS
3 A TYPICAL MULTI-FEED COLUMN
4 TYPICAL GRAND COMPOSITION CURVE
5 TYPICAL INDIRECT SEQUENCE WITH VAPOUR LINK
6 SIDESTREAM STRIPPER AND SIDESTREAM
RECTIFIER
7 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
8 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
9 PETLYUK COLUMN
Gas-Solid-Liquid Mixing Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
5 THREE-PHASE MASS TRANSFER WITH CHEMICAL REACTION
6 STIRRED VESSEL DESIGN
6.1 Agitator Design
6.2 Design for Solids Suspension
6.3 Vessel Design
6.4 Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Coefficient and Surface Area
7 THREE-PHASE FLUIDIZED BEDS
7.1 Gas and Liquid Hold-Up
7.2 Calculation Procedure
7.3 Bubble Size
7.4 Mass Transfer
7.5 Heat Transfer
7.6 Elutriation
8 SLURRY REACTORS
8.1 Gas Rate
8.2 Mass Transfer
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fouling Resistances for Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL
5 COOLING WATER FOULING
6 CHROMATE SYSTEMS
6.1 General
6.2 Constraints
6.3 Requirements
6.4 Fouling resistances
7 NON-CHROMATE SYSTEMS
7.1 General
7.2 Requirements and Constraints
7.3 Fouling resistances
8 UNTREATED COOLING WATER
9 MATERIALS OTHER THAN MILD STEEL
APPENDICES
A FOULING RESISTANCES FOR COOLING WATER
B FOULING FILM THICKNESS
Estimation of Pressure Drop in Pipe Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 units
4 SOURCES OF DATA
5 BASIC CONCEPTS
5.1 Equation for Pressure Change in a Flowing
Fluid
5.2 Static and Stagnation Pressures
5.3 Sonic Flow
6 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
6.1 Straight Circular Pipes
6.2 Ducts of Non-circular Cross-section
6.3 Coils
6.4 General Equation for Incompressible Flow
in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES OF CONSTANT
CROSS-SECTION
7.1 Isothermal Flow
7.2 Adiabatic Flow
7.3 Estimation of Pressure Drop for Adiabatic
Flow in Pipes of Constant Cross-section
7.4 Ratio of Isothermal to Adiabatic Pressure Drop
8 FLOW IN PIPE FITTINGS
8.1 Incompressible Flow
8.2 Compressible Flow
9 FLOW IN BENDS
9.1 Incompressible Flow in Bends
9.2 Compressible Flow in Bends
10 CHANGES IN CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
11 ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURIS
11.1 Incompressible Flow through an Orifice
11.2 Compressible Flow through an Orifice or Nozzle
11.3 Venturi Choke Tubes
12 VALVES
12.1 General
12.2 Incompressible Flow in Valves
12.2 Compressible Flow in Valves
13 COMBINING AND DIVIDING FLOW
9.1 Incompressible Flow
9.2 Compressible Flow
14 COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR FLUID FLOW
15 NOMENCLATURE
16 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
B COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES
C THE ‘TWO-K’ METHOD FOR FITTING PRESSURE LOSS
VLE Data - Selection and Use
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF IDEAL
AND NON-IDEAL SYSTEMS
4.1 Ideal Mixtures
4.2 Non-Ideal Mixtures
5 REVIEW OF VLE MODELS
5.1 Ideal Behavior in Both Phases
5.2 Liquid Phase Non-Idealities
5.3 High Pressure Systems
5.4 Special Models
6 SETTING UP A VLE MODEL
6.1 Define Problem
6.2 Select Data
6.3 Select Correlation(s)
6.4 Produce Model
7 AVOIDING PITFALLS
7.1 Experimental Data is Better than Estimates
7.2 Check Validity of Fitted Model
7.3 Check Limitations of Estimation Methods
7.4 Know Your System
7.5 Appreciate Errors and Effects
7.6 If in Doubt – Ask
8 A CASE STUDY
8.1 The Problem
8.2 The System
8.3 Data Available
8.4 Selected Correlation
8.5 Simulation
8.6 Selection of Model
9 RECOMMENDED READING
10 VLE EXPERTS IN GBHE
APPENDICES
A USE OF EXTENDED ANTOINE EQUATION
B USE OF WILSON EQUATION
C USEFUL METHODS OF ESTIMATING
D EQUATIONS OF STATE FOR VLE CALCULATIONS
TABLES
1 SUMMARY OF VLE METHODS
2 LIST OF USEFUL REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - IDEAL SOLUTION
BEHAVIOR
2 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - A GENERALISED
Y-X DIAGRAM
3 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
4 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MAXIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
5 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE -TWO LIQUID PHASES
6 SENSITIVITY TO ERROR IN VLE DATA (BASED ON FENSKE EQUATION)
7(a) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE A
7(b) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE B
7(c) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE C
Mixing of Miscible Liquids
Mixing of Miscible Liquids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
4.1 Mechanically Agitated Vessels
4.2 Jet Mixed Vessels
4.3 Tubular ('Flow') Mixers
5 AGITATED VESSELS
5.1 Mixing Time for Liquids in Stirred Tanks
5.2 Power Requirements
5.3 Vortex Formation and Surface Entrainment in Unbaffled and Baffled Vessels
5.4 Heat-Transfer in Stirred Vessels
5.5 Flow and Circulation
6 JET MIXED TANKS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Recommended Configuration
6.3 Design Procedure
6.4 Design for Continuous Mixing
7 TUBULAR JET FLOW MIXERS FOR MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
7.1 Recommended Configurations
7.2 Mixer Design
7.3 Additional Considerations
8 MOTIONLESS MIXERS
8.1 Recommended Types
8.2 Correlations
TABLES
1 TYPICAL CONSTANTS FOR EQUATION (1)
2 POWER CURVES FIGURES AND CORRECTION FACTORS
3 VORTEX PARAMETERS, TURBINE, PROPELLER AND SAWTOOTH
4 CHARGING A HOT VESSEL WITH A COLD PRODUCT
5 INJECTING A HOT FLUID INTO THE JACKET OF A COLD VESSEL
6 TYPICAL DISCHARGE COEFFICIENTS
7 CONSTRAINTS FOR LAMINAR FLOW MOTIONLESS MIXERS
8 CONSTANTS FOR TURBULENT FLOW MOTIONLESS MIXERS
9 LENGTH FACTORS FOR HIGH VISCOSITY RATIOS
FIGURES
1 POWER NUMBERS FOR 45° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
2 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR DIAMETER RATIOS
3 BLADE ANGLE AND THICKNESS CORRECTION FACTORS
4 POWER NUMBERS FOR SINGLE 60° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
5 POWER NUMBERS FOR TWIN 60° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
6 POWER NUMBERS FOR TRIPLE 60° ANGLED-BLADE TURBINES
7 BAFFLE WIDTH AND NUMBER CORRECTION FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT DIAMETER RATIOS
8 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR SUBMERGENCE
9 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR SEPARATION
10 POWER NUMBERS FOR DISC-TURBINES
11 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR BAFFLES
12 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR BASE CLEARANCE
13 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR SUBMERGENCE
14 POWER NUMBERS FOR RETREAT-CURVE IMPELLERS
15 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR PARTIAL BAFFLES
16 POWER NUMBERS CORRECTION FACTORS FOR RETREAT-CURVE AND IMPELLERS H/T RATIOS OF 2.0
17 POWER NUMBERS FOR FLAT-BLADED TURBINES
18 BOTTOM CLEARANCE CORRECTION FACTOR
19 POWER NUMBERS FOR ANCHOR AND GATE AGITATORS
20 POWER NUMBERS FOR PROPELLERS
21 IMPELLER SPACING CORRECTION FACTORS
22 STANDARD NOTATION FOR VORTEX CALCULATIONS
23 VORTEX DATA FOR 2 - BLADED PADDLES
(W/D = 0.33, T/D = 2)
24 VORTEX CORRECTION FACTORS FOR PADDLES
25 JET DIRECTION
26 SINGLE JET MIXERS
27 MULTIJET MIXERS
28 SERIES ARRANGEMENT OF MIXERS
29 BATCH MIXERS
30 DESIGN PROCEDURE
31 EMPIRICAL FACTORS
32 RECIRCULATION ZONES
33 FRICTION FACTOR DATA FOR KENICS AND SULZER MIXERS
Study 1: Concept Hazard Review
CONTENTS
1.0 PURPOSE
1.0.1 Team
1.0.2 Timing
1.0.3 Preparation
1.0.4 Documentation
HAZARD STUDY 1: APPLICATION
1.1 Project Definition
1.2 Process Description
1.3 Materials Hazards
1.4 External Authorities
1.5 Organization and Human Factors
1.6 Additional Activities to be Completed
1.7 Review of Hazard Study 1
APPENDICES
A Chemical Hazard Guide Diagram
B Safety Risk Criteria - Limit Values for Tolerable Risk
C List of Additional Assessments
Hydrogen Compressors
Engineering Design Guide
1 SCOPE
2 PHYSICAL ROPERTIES
2.1 Data for Pure Hydrogen
2.2 Influence of Impurities
3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Hydrogen from Electrolytic Cells
3.2 Pure Hydrogen
4 DESIGN
4.1 Pulsation
4.2 Bypass
5 TESTING OR COMMISSIONING RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
6 LUBRICATION
7 LAYOUT
8 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 MOLLIER CHART - HYDROGEN
2 COMPRESSIBILITY CHART
3 NELSON DIAGRAM
4 WATER CONTENT IN HYDROGEN FOR OIL-LUBRICATED COMPRESSORS AS GRAMM/M2 SWEPT CYLINDER AREA
LOADING AND START-UP: ADSORBENTS AND ADSORPTION UNITS
PHILOSOPHY
PACKAGING AND INSPECTION
LOADING
1.1 Vessel Inspection
1.2 Loading of Bottom Support Material
1.3 Loading of Sieve
1.4 Special Precautions in the Case of PSA and VPSA Applications
1.5 Loading of Top Support Material
1.6 The vessel should then be closed in ready for process start-up.
2. START-UP
2.1 Check list before Commencing Start-up
3. INITIAL REGENERATION
3.1 Regeneration Gas Availability
3.2 Initial Regeneration Procedure
4. PROCESS START-UP
Thermal Design Margins for Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TERMINOLOGY
5 REASONS FOR SPECIFYING A DESIGN MARGIN
5.1 Instantaneous Rates
5.2 Future Uprating
5.3 Plant Upsets
5.4 Process Control
5.5 Uncertainties in Properties
5.6 Uncertainties in Design Methods
5.7 Fouling
6 COMBINATION OF DESIGN MARGINS
7 CRITICAL AND NON-CRITICAL DUTIES
7.1 General
7.2 Penalties of Over-design
8 OPTIMIZATION OF EXCHANGER DUTY
9 WAYS OF PROVIDING DESIGN MARGINS
9.1 The Provision of Excess Surface
9.2 Decreasing the Design Temperature Difference
9.3 Increasing the Design Process Throughput
9.4 Increasing the Design Fouling Resistance
9.5 Reducing the Design Process Outlet Temperature Approach
9.6 Adjusting the Physical Properties
10 ACCURACY OF THE DESIGN METHODS FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
10.1 Pressure Drop
10.2 Heat Transfer
11 SUGGESTED DESIGN MARGINS
11.1 No Phase Change Duties
11.2 Condensers
11.3 Boilers
12 EFFECT OF UNDER- OR OVER-SURFACE ON PERFORMANCE
FIGURES
1 EFFECT OF LENGTH ON EXCHANGER DUTY COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0
2 EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TUBES ON EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0, ALL RESISTANCE IN TUBES
3 EFFECT OF TUBE LENGTH ON NUMBER OF TUBES, AREA AND PRESSURE DROP
Physical Properties for Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 COMPONENT PROPERTIES
4.1 General
4.2 Use of Component Properties for Mixtures
5 INPUT OF MIXTURE CURVES
5.1 General
5.2 Generation of the Mixture Curves
5.3 Selection of Temperature Points
5.4 Extrapolation
6 IMMISCIBLE CONDENSATES
FIGURES
1 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR EQUAL ENTHALPY CHANGE
2 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR GOOD
FIT TO CURVE
How to Use the GBHE Mixing Guides
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE MIXING GUIDES
4.1 Mixing Guides
4.2 GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual
5 DEVICE SELECTION
6 MIXING QUESTIONNAIRE
6.1 What is being mixed?
6.2 Why is it being mixed?
6.3 How is it to be mixed?
6.4 Is Heat Transfer Important?
6.5 Is Mixing Time Important?
6.6 Is Inventory Important?
6.7 Is Subsequent Phase Separation Important?
6.8 What Quantities?
6.9 What are the Selection Criteria?
6.10 What Data are required?
7 BASICS
7.1 Bulk Movement
7.2 Shear and Elongation
7.3 Turbulent Diffusion
7.4 Molecular Diffusion
7.5 Mixing Mechanisms
APPENDICES
A ROTATING MIXING DEVICES
B MIXING DEVICES WITHOUT MOVING PARTS
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon ReboilersGerard B. Hawkins
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon Reboilers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE DESIGN PROBLEM
5 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
6 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 Heating Medium Temperature
6.2 Fouling Resistance
7 DESIGN PARAMETERS
7.1 Overall Arrangement and Specifications
7.2 Geometry Elements
8 ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
PROGRAM RESULTS
8.1 Main Results
8.2 Supplementary Results
8.3 Error Analysis
8.4 Adjustments to Design
9 OPERATING RANGE
10 CONTROL
10.1 Control of Condensing Heating Medium Pressure
10.2 Control of The Condensate Level
10.3 Control of Sensible Fluid Flow Rate
11 LAYOUT
11.1 Factors Influencing Design
11.2 A Standard Layout
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Shortcut Methods of Distillation Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 ESTIMATIONOF PLATEAGE AND REFLUX
REQUIREMENTS
2.1 Generalized Procedure for Nmin and Rmin
2.2 Equation based Procedure for Nmin and Rmin
3 PREDICTION OF OVERALL PLATE EFFICIENCY
4 SIZING OF MAIN PLANT ITEMS
4.1 Column Diameter
4.2 Surface Area of Condensers and Reboilers
FIGURES
1 NON-IDEAL EQUILIBRIUM CURVE
2 AT A GLANCE CHART BASED ON FENSKE,
UNDERWOOD
3 PLATE EFFICIENCY CORRELATION OF O’CONNEL
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT:
RESISTANCE ELEMENTS AND THERMOCOUPLES
SPECIFICATION OF FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION OF FLUID
NORMAL OPERATING TEMPERATURE
REQUIRED TEMPERATURE RANGE
ALARM SETTINGS
TRIP SETTINGS
FLUID VELOCITY
REYNOLDS NUMBER
LINE SIZE
LINE REFERENCE
EQUIPMENT REFERENCE
NOZZLE SIZE
MINIMUM DESIGN PRESSURE
CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURE
MAXIMUM DESIGN PRESSURE
CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURE
Reactor Modeling Tools - An Overview
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
2 OPTIONS IN REACTOR MODELING
2.1 General
2.2 Level of Complexity of Model
2.3 Mode of Operation of Model
2.4 Deterministic versus Empirical Modeling
2.5 Platforms for Model
2.6 Steady State versus Dynamic Model
2.7 Dimensions Modeled in Reactor
2.8 Scale of Modeling for Multiphase Reactors
2.9 Writing and Using the Model
APPENDICES
A CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT REACTOR MODELS
B NEEDS FOR MODELING AT DIFFERENT SCALES IN
HETEROGENEOUS CATALYTIC REACTORS
C REACTOR MODELS EMPLOYED WITHIN GBHE
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDE
Mixing of Solid-Liquid Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
5 AGITATED VESSELS
5.1 Suspension of Heavier-than-Liquid Solids
5.1.1 Dispersion
5.1.2 Agitator Speed Correlation
5.2 Floating Solids
5.3 Mass Transfer
6 JET MIXING FOR SOLID LIQUID AGITATION
6.1 Flat Bottomed Vessel
6.2 Changes in the Shape of the Vessel Base
7 NOMENCLATURE
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A WORKED EXAMPLE
TABLES
1 VALUES OF Po AND ZWIETERING CONSTANT "S"
FOR USE IN EQUATION 1
FIGURES
1 RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION
2 RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION FOR DRAW-DOWN OF FLOATING SOLIDS IN AGITATED VESSEL
3 ALTERNATIVE RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION
FOR DRAW-DOWN OF FLOATING SOLIDS IN FOR
AGITATED VESSEL
4 JET MIXING FOR SOLIDS SUSPENSION
5 ESTIMATION OF S FROM KNOWN DATA
Selection and Design of Condensers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CHOICE OF COOLANT
5 LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Distillation Column Condensers
5.2 Other Process Condensers
6 CONTROL
6.1 Distillation Columns
6.2 Water Cooled Condensers
6.3 Refrigerant Condensers
7 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7.1 Heat Transfer Resistances
7.2 Pressure Drop
7.3 Handling of Inerts
7.4 Vapor Inlet Design
7.5 Drainage of Condensate
8 SUMMARY OF TYPES AVAILABLE
8.1 Direct Contact Condensers
8.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers
8.3 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
8.4 Spiral Plate Heat Exchangers
8.5 Internal Condensers
8.6 Plate Heat Exchangers
8.7 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
8.8 Other Compact Designs
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 DIRECT CONTACT CONDENSER WITH INDIRECT COOLER FOR RECYCLED CONDENSATE
2 SPRAY CONDENSER
3 TRAY TYPE CONDENSER
4 THREE PASS TUBE SIDE CONDENSER WITH INTERPASS LUTING FOR CONDENSATE DRAINAGE
5 CROSS FLOW CONDENSER WITH SINGLE PASS COOLANT
Introduction to Pressure Surge in Liquid Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CAUSES OF PRESSURE SURGE
4.1 Start-up
5 CONSEQUENCES OF PRESSURE SURGES
6 PRELIMINARY CALCULATIONS
6.1 Estimation of the Sonic Velocity
6.2 Pipeline Period
7 CALCULATION OF PEAK PRESSURES
7.1 Rigid Liquid Column Theory
7.2 Sudden Changes in Flowrate
7.3 Moderately Rapid Changes in Flowrate
7.4 Reflections and Attenuations
7.5 Vapor Cavity Formation
7.6 Complex Piping Systems
8 FORCES ON PIPE SUPPORTS.
9 METHODS OF REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF
PRESSURE SURGE
9.1 Flowrate
9.2 Pipe Diameter
9.3 Valve Selection and Operation
9.4 Pump Start-up/Shut-down
9.5 Surge Tanks and Accumulators
9.6 Vacuum Breakers
9.7 Changes to Equipment
10 DETAILED ANALYSIS
10.1 Data Requirements
10.2 Interpretation of Results
11 GUIDELINES FOR CALCULATIONS
12 EXAMPLES OF PRESSURE SURGE INCIDENTS
12.1 Caustic Soda Pipeline Movement
12.2 Ammonia Pipe Movement
12.3 Propylene Reactor Start-up
12.4 Cooling Water Failure
12.5 Dry Riser Fire Sprinkler Systems
12.6 Cast Iron Fire Main Pressurization
Use and Applications of Membranes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL
4.1 What is a Membrane Process?
4.2 What does a Membrane look like?
4.3 Why use Membranes?
4.4 Membrane Types and Polymers Used
5 REVERSE OSMOSIS
5.1 Principles of Reverse Osmosis
5.2 Limitations
5.3 Performance
5.4 Costs
5.5 Worked Example
5.6 Applications
6 MICROFILTRATION AND ULTRAFILTRATION
6.1 Microfiltration
6.2 Ultrafiltration
7 PERVAPORATION
7.1 Classes of Application
7.2 Characteristics
7.3 Costs
7.4 Example - Lurgi Design
7.5 Application - Stripping Organics from Water
8 GAS SEPARATION AND VAPOR PERMEATION
8.1 Gas Separation
8.2 Vapor Permeation
9 LESS COMMON MEMBRANE PROCESSES
9.1 Dialysis
9.2 Electrodialysis
9.3 Electrolysis
9.4 Salt Splitting
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
1 UTILITY CONSUMPTION AND COST COMPARISON
Interpretation and Correlation of Viscometric Data
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID BEHAVIOR
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids
4.3 Caution
5 VISCOMETER MEASUREMENTS FOR
TIME-INDEPENDENT FLUIDS
5.1 Concentric Cylinder Viscometers
5.2 Cone and Plate Viscometers
5.3 Parallel Plate Viscometer
5.4 Tube or Capillary Viscometer
5.5 Checks for Consistency of Data and Interpretation
5.6 Estimate of Process Shear Rate
6 MODEL FITTING TO FLOW CURVES
6.1 Power Law
6.2 Bingham Plastic
6.3 Direct use of Numerical Data
6.4 Rheological Models Involving Temperature Dependence
7 CHARACTERIZATION OF TIME-DEPENDENT LIQUIDS
7.1 Sample Loading
7.2 Tests at Constant Shear Rate
7.3 Dynamic Response Measurement
7.4 Changes in Shear Rate
7.4 Concluding Remarks
8 TECHNIQUES FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF
VISCOELASTIC LIQUIDS
8.1 Stress Relaxation
8.2 Oscillatory Shear Measurements
8.3 Normal Force Measurement
8.4 Elongational Viscosity Measurement
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A EQUATIONS FOR VISCOMETERS
A.1 EQUATIONS FOR CONCENTRIC CYLINDER
VISCOMETERS
A.2 EQUATIONS FOR CONE AND PLATE VISCOMETERS
A.3 EQUATIONS FOR PARALLEL PLATE VISCOMETER
A.4 EQUATIONS FOR TUBE OR CAPILLARY VISCOMETER
"SEDIMENTATION"
INTRODUCTION - THE PHENOMENON OF SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the physical process whereby solid particles, of greater density than their suspending medium, will tend to separate into regions of higher concentration under the influence of gravity. As a solids/liquids separation technique it therefore possesses the great advantage of utilizing a natural, and therefore costless, driving force. This section of the suspension processing Guide is Intended to provide an Introduction to the science of the subject, and the means to judge where and how best to exploit sedimentation as a separation (or other processing) technique.
As a scientific discipline the subject of sedimentation is vast with perspectives ranging from the field of chemical engineering through to theoretical physics being covered In the literature [1-11]. Good reviews of the subject, with a bias towards the engineering aspects, have been written by Fitch and Koz [12, 13]. A short summary of some of the more relevant contributions from the literature is also provided in GBHE-SPG-PEG-302 “Basic Principles & Test Methods”, of the Suspensions Processing Guides.
.
The sedimentation process is traditionally divided into ..."
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers Using Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 HTFS
3.2 TEMA
4 CHECKLIST
5 QUALITY OF COOLING WATER
6 COOLING WATER ON SHELL SIDE OR TUBE SIDE
7 COOLING WATER ON THE SHELL SIDE
7.1 Baffle Spacing
7.2 Impingement Plates
7.3 Horizontal or Vertical Shell Orientation
7.4 Baffle Cut Orientation
7.5 Sludge Blowdown
7.6 Removable Bundles
8 FOULING RESISTANCES AND LIMITING TEMPERATURES
9 PRESSURE DROP
9.1 Pressure Drop Restrictions
9.2 Fouling and Pressure Drop
9.3 Elevation of a Heat Exchanger in the Plant
10 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
11 WATER VELOCITY
11.1 Low Water Velocity
11.1.1 Tube Side Water Flow
11.1.2 Shell Side Water Flow
11.2 High Water Velocity
12 ECONOMICS
13 DIRECTION OF WATER FLOW
14 VENTS AND DRAINS
15 CONTROL
15.1 Operating Variables
15.2 Heat Load Control
15.2.1 General
15.2.2 Heat load control by varying cooling water flow
15.3 Orifice Plates
16 MAINTENANCE
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 APPLICABILITY AND LIMITATIONS
4.1 Applicability
4.2 Limitations
5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
6 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
7 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
8 USE OF “The VAULT”
8.1 Limitations of “The VAULT”
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Filtration
0 INTRODUCTION
1 The Theory Underlying Filtration Processes
1.1 The Mechanism of Simple Filtration Systems
1.1.2 Cake Filtration
1.1.3 Complete Blocking
1.1.4 Standard Blocking
1.1.5 Intermediate Blocking
1.2 Cake Filtration – Models and Mechanisms
1.2.1 Classical Theory for the Permeability of Porous Cakes and Beds
1.2.2 The Rate of Filtration through a Compressible Cake – The Standard Filtration Equation
1.2.3 The Compression or Consolidation of Filter Cakes – Ultimate degree of dewatering
1.2.4 The Rate of Consolidation
1.2.5 Useful Semi-Empirical Relations for Constant Pressure and Constant Rate Cake Filtration
1.2.6 Constant Pressure Filtration
1.2.7 Constant Rate Filtration
1.2.8 Multiphase Theory of Filtration
1.3 Crossflow Filtration
2 The Range and Selection of Filtration Equipment Technology
2.1 Scale
2.2 Solids Recovery, Liquids Clarification or Feed stream Concentration
2.3 Rate of Sedimentation
2.4 Rate of Cake Formation and Drainage
2.5 Batch vs Continuous Operation
2.6 Solids Loading
2.7 Further Processing
2.8 Aseptic or “Hygienic” Operation
2.9 Miscellaneous
2.10 Shear versus Compressional Deformation
2.11 Pressure versus Vacuum
3 Suspension Conditioning Prior to Filtration
3.1 Simple Filtration Aids
3.2 Mechanical Treatments
4 Post-Filtration Treatments and Further Downstream Processing
4.1 Washing
4.1.1 Air-Blowing
4.1.2 Drying
5 Testing and Characterization of Suspensions
5.1 Introduction – Suspension
5.2 Properties relevant to Filtration Performance
5.2.1 Pre-Filtration Properties of Suspension
5.2.2 Properties of Filter Cake
5.2.3 Laboratory Scale Filtration Rigs
5.3 Means of Monitoring Flocculant Dosage
5.4 Filter Cake Testing
5.4.1 Strength Testing (See also piston press described earlier)
5.4.2 Cake Permeability or Resistance
5.4.3 Rate of Cake Formation
6 Examples of the Application of the Forgoing Principles
6.1 Dewatering of Calcium Carbonate Slurries
6.2 Dewatering of Organic Products – Procion Dyestuffs
6.3 Filtration of Biological Systems – Harvesting a Filamentous Organism
References
Tables
Figures
SYNOPSIS
The principles underlying centrifugal separation of particulate species are briefly considered, and the main types of separator available are noted. The procedures available for scale-up from laboratory or semi-technical data are then discussed in detail with particular reference to perhaps the most important class of machine for fine particle processing: the disc-nozzle centrifuge.
Starting with the basic concepts behind their design, discussion follows to explain the factors which may limit centrifuge performance. It is shown how a few simple; laboratory scale tests can give a valuable insight into the design and operation of full-scale industrial machines.
Solid Catalyzed Reactions
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL BACKGROUND
4.1 General Considerations
5 SOLID CATALYZED GAS REACTIONS
5.1 Reaction Kinetics
5.2 Tests for Transport Limitations
5.3 Building a Reaction Kinetic Equation
6 INTRAPARTICLE
6.1 Types of Pore System
6.2 The Catalyst Effectiveness Factor
6.3 The Measurement of Effective Diffusivity
7 ENHANCEMENT OF INTRAPARTICLE
8 NOMENCLATURE
8.1 Dimensionless Parameters
8.2 Greek Letters
8.3 Subscripts
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1 Further Reading
APPENDICES
A LANGMUIR - HINSHELWOOD KINETICS
FIGURES
1 EFFECTIVE RATE CONSTANT
2 ITERATIVE APPROACH TO REACTOR MODEL
DEVELOPMENT
3 COMMON LABORATORY MICROREACTORS (FLOW TYPE)
4 THE BERTY REACTOR
5 STEPS IN BUILDING A REACTION RATE EQUATION
6 A CENTRAL-COMPOSITE DESIGN FOR TWO FACTORS
7 FIRST ORDER ISOTHERMAL IRREVERSIBLE
REACTION WITHIN A CATALYST SPHERE
8 INTEGRAL YIELD vs CONVERSION SHOWING EFFECT OF PELLET DIFFUSION
9 PREDICTED AND EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTIVENESS FACTORS
10 STRUCTURAL PERMEABILITY vs PRESSURE PARAMETER Z FOR BI-MODAL SUPPORTS
11 EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR vs THIELE MODULUS AND INTRAPARTICLE PECLET NUMBER
12 RELATIVE INCREASE IN CATALYST PERFORMANCE
Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Low Alloy and Austenitic Stainl...Gerard B. Hawkins
Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Low Alloy and Austenitic Stainless Steels in Chloride and Caustic Environments
SYNOPSIS
This Maintenance Best Practice Guide is concerned with the performance of carbon and low alloy steels, and austenitic stainless steels, in chloride and caustic containing fluids. Those factors which are known to promote stress corrosion cracking are outlined, and service charts defining environmental boundaries for stress corrosion cracking in caustic and chloride containing fluids are presented.
General guidance on the avoidance of stress corrosion cracking is provided.
Gas Solid Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GAS-SOLID FLUIDIZED BED
5 MIXING IN FLUIDIZED BEDS
5.1 Group A Powders
5.2 Group B Powders
5.3 Group C Powders
5.4 Group D Powders
6 MECHANISMS OF MIXING AND SEGREGATION
6.1 Particle Segregation
6.2 Rate of Mixing
6.3 Solids Circulation
7 GRID DESIGN
7.1 Choice of Configuration
8 PLENUM CHAMBER DESIGN
9 SPOUTED BED
10 NOMENCLATURE
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 POWDER CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM FOR
FLUIDIZATION BY AIR
2 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF MIXING BY A SINGLE RISING BUBBLE IN A BED OF SMALL
PARTICLES
3 SEGREGATION PATTERNS WITH 'PRACTICAL'
MATERIALS
4 SPOUTED BED – DIAGRAMMATIC
Lubricants
Engineering Design Guide
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 LUBRICATION BASICS
2.1 Basic Functions of a Lubricant
2.2 Hydrostatic Fluid Film Lubrication
2.3 Hydrodynamic Fluid Film Lubrication
2.4 Boundary Lubrication
2.5 Mixed Lubrication
3 VISCOSITY
3.1 General
3.2 Dynamic Viscosity
3.3 Kinematic Viscosity
3.4 Measurement of Viscosity
3.5 Viscosity Classification of Lubricants
3.6 Viscosity Index
3.7 Viscosity Change with Pressure
4 MINERAL OILS
4.1 General Characteristics
4.2 British Standard 4475 Commentary
4.3 Oil Additives
4.4 Synthetic Oils
5 GREASES
5.1 Composition
5.2 Properties
6 SOLID LUBRICANTS
7 SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS
8 OPERATING FACTORS
8.1 Filtration
8.2 Operating Temperatures
8.3 Total Loss Lubrication Systems
9 LUBRICANT SUPPLY AND SCHEDULING
9.1 Selection of Supplier
9.2 Lubrication Schedules
10 HEATH AND SAFETY
11 MONITORING & MAINTENANCE OF OIL IN SERVICE
11.1 Analyze or Change?
11.2 Visual Analysis
1 I.3 Laboratory Analysis
11.4 Contamination Problems
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A VISCOSITY EQUIVALENTS
B SYMBOLS AND PREFERRED UNITS
FIGURES
I LUBRICANT CHANGE PERIODS AND TESTS
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERAL LUBRICATING OILS VG32 TO VG 460.
3 SERVICE MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE OF OIL IN SERVICE ON LARGE SYSTEMS
TABLES
1 ISO VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION
2 OILS TO BS 4475 RECOMMENDED FOR USE BY GBHE
3 SUGGESTED OIL CHANGE PERIODS FOR SMALL INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
4 VISUAL EXAMINATION OF USED LUBRICATING OILS
5 SUMMARY OF ROUTINE ANALYTICAL TESTS FOR INDUSTRIAL OILS
General Water Treatment For Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CHOICE OF COOLING SYSTEM
4.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
4.2 Open Evaporative Recirculating Systems
4.3 Closed Recirculating Systems
4.4 Comparison of Cooling Systems
5 MAKE-UP WATER QUALITY
6 FOULING PROCESSES
6.1 Deposition
6.2 Scaling
6.3 Corrosion
6.4 Biological Growth
7 CONTROL OF THE COOLING SYSTEM
7.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
7.2 Closed Recirculating Systems
7.3 Open Evaporative Cooling Systems
TABLES
1 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF FOULING PROCESSES AND INSTALLED COSTS
2 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
FIGURES
1 PREDICTION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE SCALING
2 CALCIUM SULFATE SOLUBILITY
3 CALCIUM PHOSPHATE SCALING INDEX
The Selection of Flocculants and other Solid-Liquid Separation AidsGerard B. Hawkins
The use of chemical additives, such as flocculants, is a common step in solid-liquid separation operations. The correct selection of agent is an essential part of the design of such processes. Many excellent reviews and guides deal with this topic, and the interested reader is referred to works such as [l-4]. In particular the Harwell-Warren Spring Report “The Use and Selection of Flocculants" provides a good overview on the application of coagulants and flocculants. This section does not attempt to reproduce a detailed treatment of that kind; instead it is our intention to state a few general rules and principles concerning methods of choosing an additive, and to illustrate briefly their application in practice.
The types of agents employed in solid-liquid separation fall into three principal classes:
Introduction
Catalyst breakage is a well known phenomena that occurs during operation and transients such as reformer trips, whether this be due to,
• Normal in service breakage,
• Breakage due to carbon formation/removal,
• Breakage due to steam condensation or carry over,
• Breakage during a trip.
The effect of catalyst breakage can be observed in a number of ways,
• Hot bands,
• Speckling and giraffe necking,
• Catalyst breakage and settling.
Similar to Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Turbulent Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids (20)
Pressure Relief Systems Vol 2
Causes of Relief Situations
This Volume 2 is a guide to the qualitative identification of common causes of overpressure in process equipment. It cannot be exhaustive; the process engineer and relief systems team should look for any credible situation in addition to those given in this Part which could lead to a need for pressure relief (a relief situation).
Pressure Relief Systems
BACKGROUND TO RELIEF SYSTEM DESIGN Vol.1 of 6
The Guide has been written to advise those involved in the design and engineering of pressure relief systems. It takes the user from the initial identification of potential causes of overpressure or under pressure through the process design of relief systems to the detailed mechanical design. "Hazard Studies" and quantitative hazards analysis are not described; these are seen as complementary activities. Typical users of the Guide will use some Parts in detail and others in overview.
Theory of Carbon Formation in Steam Reforming
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Underpinning Theory
2.1 Conceptualization
2.2 Reforming Reactions
2.3 Carbon Formation Chemistry
2.3.1 Natural Gas
2.3.2 Carbon Formation for Naphtha Feeds
2.3.3 Carbon Gasification
2.4 Heat Transfer
3 Causes
3.1 Effects of Carbon Formation
3.2 Types of Carbon
4 What are the Effects of Carbon Formation?
4.1 Why does Carbon Formation Get Worse?
4.1.1 So what is the Next Step?
4.2 Consequences of Carbon Formation
4.3 Why does Carbon Form where it does?
4.3.1 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
4.4 Why does Carbon Formation Propagate Down the Tube?
4.4.1 Effect on Radiation on the Fluegas Side
4.5 Why does Carbon Formation propagate Up the Tube?
5 How do we Prevent Carbon Formation
5.1 The Role of Potash
5.2 Inclusion of Pre-reformer
5.3 Primary Reformer Catalyst Parameters
5.3.1 Activity
5.3.2 Heat Transfer
5.3.3 Increased Steam to Carbon Ratio
6 Steam Out
6.1 Why does increasing the Steam to Carbon Ratio Not Work?
6.2 Why does reducing the Feed Rate not help?
6.3 Fundamental Principles of Steam Outs
TABLES
1 Heat Transfer Coefficients in a Typical Reformer
2 Typical Catalyst Loading Options
FIGURES
1 Hot Bands
2 Conceptual Pellet
3 Naphtha Carbon Formation
4 Heat Transfer within an Reformer
5 Types of Carbon Formation
6 Effect of Carbon on Nickel Crystallites
7 Absorption of Heat
8 Comparison of "Base Case" v Carbon Forming Tube
9 Carbon Formation Vicious Circle
10 Temperature Profiles
11 Carbon Pinch Point
12 Carbon Formation
13 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
14 How does Carbon Propagate into an Unaffected Zone?
15 Movement of the Carbon Forming Region
16 Effect of Hot Bands on Radiative Heat Transfer
17 Effect of Potash on Carbon Formation
18 Application of a Pre-reformer
19 Effect of Activity on Carbon Formation
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption: Gerard B. Hawkins
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption:
Case Study: #06023300
Plant Note Book Series: PNBS-0602
CONTENTS
0 SCOPE
1 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FEED CONSUMPTION
2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FUEL CONSUMPTION
3 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION FOR PILOT BURNERS OF FLARES
4 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER FROM DEMIN. UNIT
5 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER TO PACKAGE BOILERS
6 CALCULATION OF MP STEAM EXPORT
7 CALCULATION OF LP STEAM IMPORT
8 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION
9 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT ISBL
10 ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR TEST RUN CONDITIONS
11 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN MP STEAM CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
12 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
13 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT OSBL
14 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
GBHE-APT-0102
PICKLING & PASSIVATION
CONTENTS
1 PURPOSE OF THE WORK
2 CHEMICAL CONCEPT
3 TECHNICAL CONCEPT
4 WASTES & SAFETY CONCEPT
5 TARGET RESULTS
6 THE GENERAL CLEANING SEQUENCE MANAGEMENT
6.6.1 Pre-cleaning or “Physical Cleaning
6.6.2 Pre-rinsing
6.6.3 Chemical Cleaning
6.6.4 Critical Factors in Cleaning Success
6.6.5 Rinsing
6.6.6 Inspection and Re-Cleaning, if Necessary
7 Systems to be treated by Pickling/Passivation
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS Gerard B. Hawkins
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope of this Guide
1.3 Use of the Guide
2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
2.1 Principal Concerns
2.2 Mechanisms for Ozone Formation
2.3 Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
2.4 Health and Environmental Effects
2.5 Air Quality Standards for Ground Level Concentrations of Ozone, Targets for Reduction of VOC Discharges and Statutory Discharge Limits
3 VENTS REDUCTION PHILOSOPHY
3.1 Reduction at Source
3.2 End-of-pipe Treatment
4 METHODOLOGY FOR COLLECTION & ASSESSMENT OF PROCESS FLOW DATA
4.1 General
4.2 Identification of Vent Sources
4.3 Characterization of Vents
4.4 Quantification of Process Vent Flows
4.5 Component Flammability Data Collection
4.6 Identification of Operating Scenarios
4.7 Quantification of Flammability Characteristics for Combined Vents
4.8 Identification, Quantification and Assessment of Possibility of Air Ingress Routes
4.9 Tabulation of Data
4.10 Hazard Study and Risk Assessment
4.11 Note on Aqueous / Organic Wastes
4.12 Complexity of Systems
4.13 Summary
5 SAFE DESIGN OF VENT COLLECTION HEADER SYSTEMS
5.1 General
5.2 Process Design of Vent Headers
5.3 Liquid in Vent Headers
5.4 Materials of Construction
5.5 Static Electricity Hazard
5.6 Diversion Systems
5.7 Snuffing Systems
6 SAFE DESIGN OF THERMAL OXIDISERS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design Basis
6.3 Types of High Temperature Thermal Oxidizer
6.4 Refractories
6.5 Flue Gas Treatment
6.6 Control and Safety Systems
6.7 Project Program
6.8 Commissioning
6.9 Operational and Maintenance Management
APPENDICES
A GLOSSARY
B FLAMMABILITY
C EXAMPLE PROFORMA
D REFERENCES
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS GUIDE
TABLE
1 PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE CREATION POTENTIAL REFERENCED
TO ETHYLENE AS UNITY
FIGURES
1 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL VENT COLLECTION AND THERMAL OXIDIZER SYSTEM
2 TYPICAL KNOCK-OUT POT WITH LUTED DRAIN
3 SCHEMATIC OF DIVERSION SYSTEM
4 CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL THERMAL OXIDIZER
5 CONVENTIONAL OXIDIZER WITH INTEGRAL WATER SPARGER
6 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH STAGED AIR INJECTION
7 DOWN-FIRED UNIT WITH WATER BATH QUENCH
8 FLAMELESS THERMAL OXIDATION UNIT
9 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH REGENERATIVE HEAT RECOVERY
10 TYPICAL PROJECT PROGRAM
11 TYPICAL FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
12 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR
13 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR ON 100 Rm³ OF FLAMMABLE GAS
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF A...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS ORGANIC EFFLUENT STREAMS
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 IPU
3.2 AOS
3.3 BODs
3.4 COD
3.5 TOC
3.6 Toxicity
3.7 Refractory Organics/Hard COD
3.8 Heavy Metals
3.9 EA
3.10 Biological Treatment Terms
3.11 BATNEEC
3.12 BPEO
3.13 EQS/LV
3.14 IPC
3.15 VOC
3.16 F/M Ratio
3.17 MLSS
3.18 MLVSS
4 DESIGN/ECONOMIC GUIDELINES
5 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
5.1 General
5.2 Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)
5.3 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
5.4 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)
5.5 Environmental Quality Standards(EQS)
6 IPU EXIT CONCENTRATION
7 SITE/LOCAL REQUIREMENTS
8 PROCESS SELECTION PROCEDURE
8.1 Waste Minimization Techniques (WMT)
8.2 AOS Stream Definition
8.3 Technical Check List
8.4 Preliminary Selection of Suitable Technologies
8.5 Process Sequences
8.6 Economic Evaluation
8.7 Process Selection
APPENDICES
A DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 1
B DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 2
C THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION PRIORITY CANDIDATE LIST
D THE UK RED LIST
E CURRENT VALUES FOR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS AND CORRESPONDING LIMIT VALUES
F ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES
G EMERGING TECHNOLOGY
H PROPRIETARY/LESS COMMON TECHNOLOGIES
J COMPARATIVE COST DATA
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGA...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE NEED FOR VOC CONTROL
3 CONTROL AT SOURCE
3.1 Choice or Solvent
3.2 Venting Arrangements
3.3 Nitrogen Blanketing
3.4 Pump Versus Pneumatic Transfer
3.5 Batch Charging
3.6 Reduction of Volumetric Flow
3.7 Stock Tank Design
4 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
4.1 By Inference or Calculation
4.2 Flow Monitoring Equipment
4.3 Analytical Instruments
4.4 Vent Emissions Database
5 ABATEMENT TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Available Options
5.2 Selection of Preferred Option
5.3 Condensation
5.4 Adsorption
5.5 Absorption
5.6 Thermal Incineration
5.7 Catalytic Oxidation
5.8 Biological Filtration
5.9 Combinations of Process technologies
5.10 Processes Under Development
6 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
7 REFERENCES
Appendix 1. Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials
Appendix 2. Examples of Adsorption Preliminary Calculations
Appendix 3. Example of Thermal Incineration Heat and Mass Balance
Appendix 4. Cost Correlations
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen PlantGerard B. Hawkins
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen Plant
Contents
Summary
1 Introduction
2 "On-purpose" Hydrogen Production
3 Operational Aspects
4 Uprating Options on the Steam Reformer
4.1 Steam Reforming Catalysts and Tube Metallurgy
4.2 Oxygen-blown Secondary Reformer
4.3 Pre-reforming
4.4 Post-reforming
5 Downstream Units
6 Summary of Uprating Options
7 Conclusions
EMERGENCY ISOLATION OF CHEMICAL PLANTS
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 When should Emergency Isolation Valves be Installed
3 Emergency Isolation Valves and Associated Equipment
3.1 Installations on existing plant
3.2 Actuators
3.3 Power to close or power to open
3.4 The need for testing
3.5 Hand operated Emergency Valves
3.6 The need to stop pumps in an emergency
3.7 Location of Operating Buttons
3.8 Use of control valves for Isolation
4 Detection of Leaks and Fires
5 Precautions during Maintenance
6 Training Operators to use Emergency Isolation Valves
7 Emergency Isolation when no remotely operated valve is available
References
Glossary
Appendix I Some Fires or Serious Escapes of Flammable Gases or Liquids that could have been controlled by Emergency Isolation Valves
Appendix II Some typical Installations
Amine Gas Treating Unit - Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide Gerard B. Hawkins
Amine Gas Treating Unit Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide for H2S/CO2 Amine Systems
Contents
Process Capabilities for gas treating process
Typical Amine Treating
Typical Amine System Improvements
Primary Equipment Overview
Inlet Gas Knockout
Absorber
Three Phase Flash Tank
Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger
Regenerator
Filtration
Amine Reclaimer
Operating Difficulties Overview
Foaming
Failure to Meet Gas Specification
Solvent Losses
Corrosion
Typical Amine System Improvements
Degradation of Amines and Alkanolamines during Sour Gas Treating
APPENDIX
Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide
"Impact of front-end architecture on development cost", Viktor TurskyiFwdays
I have heard many times that architecture is not important for the front-end. Also, many times I have seen how developers implement features on the front-end just following the standard rules for a framework and think that this is enough to successfully launch the project, and then the project fails. How to prevent this and what approach to choose? I have launched dozens of complex projects and during the talk we will analyze which approaches have worked for me and which have not.
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
Software Delivery At the Speed of AI: Inflectra Invests In AI-Powered QualityInflectra
In this insightful webinar, Inflectra explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming software development and testing. Discover how AI-powered tools are revolutionizing every stage of the software development lifecycle (SDLC), from design and prototyping to testing, deployment, and monitoring.
Learn about:
• The Future of Testing: How AI is shifting testing towards verification, analysis, and higher-level skills, while reducing repetitive tasks.
• Test Automation: How AI-powered test case generation, optimization, and self-healing tests are making testing more efficient and effective.
• Visual Testing: Explore the emerging capabilities of AI in visual testing and how it's set to revolutionize UI verification.
• Inflectra's AI Solutions: See demonstrations of Inflectra's cutting-edge AI tools like the ChatGPT plugin and Azure Open AI platform, designed to streamline your testing process.
Whether you're a developer, tester, or QA professional, this webinar will give you valuable insights into how AI is shaping the future of software delivery.
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
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Let's dive deeper into the world of ODC! Ricardo Alves (OutSystems) will join us to tell all about the new Data Fabric. After that, Sezen de Bruijn (OutSystems) will get into the details on how to best design a sturdy architecture within ODC.
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Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Turbulent Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids
1. GBH Enterprises, Ltd.
Process Engineering Guide:
GBHE-PEG-FLO-304
Pipeline Design for Isothermal,
Turbulent Flow of Non-Newtonian
Fluids
Information contained in this publication or as otherwise supplied to Users is
believed to be accurate and correct at time of going to press, and is given in
good faith, but it is for the User to satisfy itself of the suitability of the information
for its own particular purpose. GBHE gives no warranty as to the fitness of this
information for any particular purpose and any implied warranty or condition
(statutory or otherwise) is excluded except to the extent that exclusion is
prevented by law. GBHE accepts no liability resulting from reliance on this
information. Freedom under Patent, Copyright and Designs cannot be assumed.
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2. Process Engineering Guide:
Pipeline Design for Isothermal,
Turbulent Flow of NonNewtonian Fluids
CONTENTS
SECTION
0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
2
1
SCOPE
2
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
2
3
DEFINITIONS
2
4
DESCRIPTION OF ANOMALOUS EFFECTS
2
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Wall Slip
Drag Reduction in Polymeric Materials
Transition Delay by Polymeric Materials
Drag Reduction in Suspensions
2
2
3
4
5
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PRESSURE DROP
IN TURBULENT PIPE FLOW IN THE ABSENCE
OF DRAG REDUCTION
5
Pressure Drop in the Absence of Wall Slip and
Drag Reduction
Wall Slip
Pipe Roughness
Pipe Fittings
5
5
5
5
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAG REDUCING
POLYMERIC MATERIALS
7
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
General
Transition Delay
Pipe Roughness
Pipe Fittings
7
8
8
9
7
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAG REDUCING
FIBRE SUSPENSIONS
9
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6
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3. 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
9
9
NOMENCLATURE
10
FIGURES
1
DRAG REDUCTION PHENOMENA
3
2
TRANSITION DELAY PHENOMENA
4
3
PROCEDURE FOR THE CALCULATION OF
PRESSURE DROP IN TURBULENT NON-NEWTONIAN
PIPE FLOW
6
TYPICAL RELATIONSHIP FOR Ψ VERSUS ʋ*
8
4
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS
ENGINEERING GUIDE
10
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4. 0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
This Process Engineering Guide is one of a series of guides on non-Newtonian
flow prepared for GBH Enterprises.
Fluid flow in chemical plants is usually turbulent, and viscosities have to be high
before laminar flow predominates. When viscosities are high, the fluids are often
non-Newtonian in character. In this field of non-Newtonian flow, laminar flow
predominates and this is covered by GBHE-PEG-FLO-303. There are still many
instances when turbulent flow of non-Newtonian fluids is encountered.
1
SCOPE
This guide presents the basis for the prediction of flow rate - pressure drop
relationships for the turbulent flow of non-Newtonian fluid through circular pipes
under isothermal conditions. The Guide also deals with drag reduction by
polymeric materials and fibre suspensions.
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
This guide applies to the process engineering community in GBH Enterprises
worldwide.
3
DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this guide, no specific definitions apply.
4
DESCRIPTION OF ANOMALOUS EFFECTS
The fluids which can exhibit non-Newtonian effects are varied, and the flow can
be complicated by the anomalous effects described in 4.1 to 4.4.
4.1
Wall Slip
Wall slip can occur with the flow of slurries. Wall slip is a misnomer, as the liquid
does not, in fact, slip. What occurs is that under the appropriate circumstances, a
layer of fluid is formed next to the wall which has a viscosity appreciably less
than the bulk of the fluid.
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5. This is caused both by the wall affecting packing arrangements of particles and
by the steep velocity gradients near the wall causing hydrodynamic lift effects
which move particles away from the wall. The net effect can be considered as an
effective "slip" at the wall, hence its name.
4.2
Drag Reduction in Polymeric Materials
The addition of very small concentrations of high polymeric substances can
reduce the frictional resistance in turbulent flow to as low as one quarter that of
the pure solvent. This phenomenon, drag reduction, can occur both with fluids
which exhibit Newtonian and non-Newtonian viscous characteristics. Drag
reduction is illustrated in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1
DRAG REDUCTION PHENOMENA
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6. 4.3
Transition Delay by Polymeric Materials
The phenomenon of transition delay is closely related to drag reduction and is
illustrated in Figure 2. The behavior shown in Figure 2(a) is typical of soap
solutions (see Ref. [1]) and that in Figure 2(b) is typical of certain types of
polymer solutions, such as polyacrylamide in water (see Ref. [2]).
With transition delayed flow, the flow does not attain turbulent flow
characteristics.
Drag reduction and transition delay are no doubt related but, on the basis of the
available evidence, there appear to be significant differences.
The distinction between the two phenomena is that with drag reduction the flow
attains non-drag reducing fully-developed turbulent flow before it is affected by
the polymer.
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7. FIGURE 2
TRANSITION DELAY PHENOMENA
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8. 4.4
Drag Reduction in Suspensions
Drag reduction can also occur with the flow of suspensions of rigid, elongated
particles. The shape of the particles is all important, as Kerekes and Douglas
(see Ref. [3]) observed that drag reduction did not occur with suspensions of
spherical particles but did with suspensions of particles having an elongated
shape.
Vaseleski and Metzner (see Ref. [4]) have reviewed the work which has been
carried out into pressure drop in fibre suspensions and have drawn a number of
important conclusions; viz drag reduction in fibre suspensions:
(a)
Increases for a particular fibre as the fibre concentration is increased.
(b)
Increases as the aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio) of the fibers is
increased at constant fibre concentration.
(c)
Is not dependent upon the pipe diameter.
Much less work has been carried out on drag reduction in fibre suspensions than
polymeric materials; this makes design procedures less reliable.
5
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PRESSURE DROP IN TURBULENT PIPE
FLOW IN THE ABSENCE OF DRAG REDUCTION
5.1
Pressure Drop in the Absence of Wall Slip and Drag Reduction
Both slurries of approximately spherical particles and polymer solutions can,
under certain circumstances, flow turbulently without exhibiting any of the
anomalous effects described in Clause 4. In the absence of these effects,
Newtonian friction factor correlations can be used to calculate the pressure drop
in turbulent non-Newtonian pipe flow if Reynolds numbers are based on the
apparent viscosity at the wall (see Ref. [5]). Unfortunately, we cannot calculate
the apparent viscosity at the wall until we know the shear stress at the wall (and
hence the pressure drop); consequently an iterative calculation is required.
Figure 3 shows a flow chart for the calculation of pressure drop in turbulent nonNewtonian pipe flow in the absence of any wall effects.
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9. Any departure of experimental data from the Newtonian friction factor correlation
indicates the presence of anomalous effects. Without experimental data under
turbulent conditions it is impossible to predict how a polymeric material or fibre
suspension will behave under turbulent flow conditions.
5.2
Wall Slip
No procedures are currently available for estimating the effect of wall slip under
turbulent flow conditions. If it is neglected in design calculations and does occur
then it is likely to lead to pressure drop predictions which are high and hence, in
most instances, a conservative design. This does not mean to say that wall slip
can also be ignored in the laminar regime. The viscometric measurements
required to characterize the fluid are described in GBHE-PEG-FLO-302.
5.3
Pipe Roughness
All of the experimental work which has been carried out on the turbulent flow of
non-Newtonian fluids in the absence of wall effects has involved hydraulically
smooth pipes. Wall roughness will no doubt affect the turbulent flow of nonNewtonian fluids as it does with Newtonian fluids. In the absence of any
information, it is recommended that the calculation procedure given in Figure 3
still be followed and wall roughness be included in the calculations in the same
way as it would be for a Newtonian fluid but of course using a Reynolds number
based on the apparent viscosity at the wall.
5.4
Pipe Fittings
In turbulent Newtonian flow through pipe fittings, viscous effects are not normally
significant and pressure drops are based on a number of velocity heads lost. It is
thus recommended that pressure losses for the flow of non-Newtonian fluids be
calculated in the same way as for Newtonian fluids. Some data for laminar
pressure drop in pipe fittings have been given in GBHE-PEG-FLO-303.
FIGURE 3
PROCEDURE FOR THE CALCULATION OF PRESSURE DROP
IN TURBULENT NON-NEWTONIAN PIPE FLOW (provided wall
effects are not present)
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11. 6
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAG REDUCING
POLYMERIC MATERIALS
6.1
General
Numerous studies have been undertaken to characterize drag reduction
phenomena in polymeric materials and these have been reviewed by Hoyt,
Lumley and Virk (see Refs. [6], [7] and [8] respectively). The evidence which is
available suggests that the presence of the polymer in drag reducing flows alters
the structure of the turbulence in a complex manner. These complexities,
coupled with the difficulty of defining physical properties which characterize
drag reduction, make a scaling procedure attractive for design work, i.e. being
able to scale pressure-drop measurements from one diameter of pipe to another.
This would require turbulent viscometric measurements to be made, in addition
to the normal laminar flow viscometric measurements required to characterize
the fluid.
In order to scale drag reduction from one flow situation to another, it is first
necessary to define the degree of drag reduction in some way. As drag reduction
can at maximum reduce to laminar flow, it would seem logical to define it with
respect to this maximum effect. In fact, Metzner and Park (see Ref. [2])
suggested a ratio of the form:
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12. flow and found that for a particular fluid the value Ψ was a unique function of
the observed friction velocity and independent of pipe diameter. Thus, for a
particular fluid:
Thus, given the fluid density, the purely viscous laminar flow properties of the
fluid, the pipe diameter and bulk velocity, then v* can be calculated (hence t w
and ΔP) if f(v*) is known. This function f(v*) should be determined
experimentally for each fluid. A typical curve is shown in Figure 4. It should be
noted, however, that this method of correlation does not work with transition
delay phenomena.
If a particular design problem does not warrant experimental measurements,
then an over prediction of the pressure drop will be obtained by following the
calculation procedure shown in Figure 3. It is important to note, however, that a
friction factor obtained in this manner (i.e. from Figure 3) should not be used in
heat transfer calculations otherwise this could lead to a gross over-prediction of
the heat transfer coefficient.
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13. FIGURE 4 TYPICAL RELATIONSHIP FOR Ψ VERSUS v*
6.2
Transition Delay
Drag reduction and transition delay behavior are no doubt related. However, the
methods described for dealing with drag reduction do not apply to transition
delay. The small amount of experimental evidence which is available suggests
that the method recommended for correlating pressure drop data in drag
reducing flow (i.e. Ψ against v*) does not work effectively with transition delay.
There are currently no reliable methods available for correlating transition delay
data.
6.3
Pipe Roughness
Polymeric materials are just as effective in reducing drag in rough pipes as they
are in smooth pipes. Virk (see Ref. [10]) carried out an extensive study into the
flow of polymeric materials in roughened pipes. Although his data were
characteristic of transition delay rather than drag reduction, one particularly
important result is worth noting. Virk found that the maximum drag
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14. reduction attainable for a given fluid had the same value for a given Reynolds
number in both smooth and rough pipes.
This implies that the function f(v*) in Equations (2) and (3) should be the same
for both smooth and rough pipes. However, it is recommended that turbulent
pressure drop experiments to determine f(v*) be carried out using pipes with the
same relative roughness (ε/D) envisaged for the design.
6.4
Pipe Fittings
No investigations have been carried out into the flow of polymeric materials
through pipe fittings under turbulent flow conditions. If pressure drops are
calculated in the same way as for Newtonian flow, then this is likely to lead to an
over-prediction of pressure drop.
7
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAG REDUCING FIBRE SUSPENSIONS
Pressure drop in drag reducing fibre suspensions is less complex to correlate
than in polymeric materials. There is no diameter effect with the flow of fibre
suspensions and thus data for a particular fluid can be represented as a unique
function on a plot of friction factor against Reynolds number. However, the
friction factor vs Reynolds number relationship for a particular fibre suspension
cannot be predicted and can only be determined experimentally.
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15. 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This Process Engineering Guide makes reference to the following:
[1]
A.White, Flow characteristics of complex soap systems, Nature, London
214, 585-586 (1967)
[2]
A.B.Metzner and M.G.Park, Turbulent flow characteristics of viscoelastic
fluids, J Fluid Mech 20,291-303 (1964)
[3]
R.J.E.Kerekes and W.J.M.Douglas, Viscosity Properties of Suspensions at
the Limiting Conditions for Turbulent Drag Reduction, Can. J Chem. Eng.
SO, 228-231 (1972)
[4]
R.C.Vaseleski and A.B.Metzner, Drag Reduction in the Turbulent Flow of
Fibre Suspensions, A.I.Ch.E.JL 20, 301-306 (1974)
[5]
M.F.Edwards and R.Smith, The turbulent flow of non-Newtonian fluids in
the absence of anomalous wall effects J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech.
7,77-90 (1980)
[6]
J.W.Hoyt, The effect of additives on fluid friction, Trans ASME 94D, 258285 (1972)
[7]
J.L.Lumley, Drag reduction in turbulent flow by polymer additives, J.
Polymer Sci Macromol. Rev. 7, 263-290 (1973)
[8]
P.S.Virk, Drag reduction fundamentals, A.I.Ch.JL.21, 625-656 (1975)
[9]
N.F.Whitsitt, L.J.Harrington and H.R.Crawford in C.S. Wells, Viscous Drag
Reduction, Plenum Press (1969)
[10]
P.S.Virk, Drag reduction in Rough Pipes, J.Fluid Mech. 45, 225-246
(1971).
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16. 9
NOMENCLATURE
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17. DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDE
This Process Engineering Guide makes reference to the following documents:
PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDES
GBHE-PEG-FLO-302
Interpretation and Correlation of Viscometric Data
(referred to in 5.2)
GBHE-PEG-FLO-303
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of NonNewtonian Fluids (referred to in Clause 0 and 5.4)
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18. Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
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