The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries which work together to circulate blood throughout the body. The circulated blood provides oxygen and nutrients to cells while removing carbon dioxide and waste. Regulation of the cardiovascular system occurs through various stimuli including hormones, nerves, organs, and more. The system performs critical functions such as oxygen/nutrient delivery, waste removal, temperature regulation, hormone transport, and blood clotting.

1. PHYSIOLOGY
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
The cardiovascular system provides blood supply throughout the body. By responding to various stimuli, it can control the velocity and
amount of blood carried through the vessels. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart
and vessels work together intricately to provide adequate blood flow to all parts of the body. The regulation of the cardiovascular
system occurs via a myriad of stimuli, including changing blood volume, hormones, electrolytes, osmolarity, medications, adrenal
glands, kidneys, and much more. The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems also play a key role in the regulation of the
cardiovascular system.
Functions of the cardiovascular system:
 Circulates OXYGEN and removes Carbon Dioxide.
 Provides cells with NUTRIENTS.
 Removes the waste products of metabolism to the excretory organs for disposal.
 Protects the body against disease and infection.
 Clotting stops bleeding after injury.
 Transports HORMONES to target cells and organs.
 Helps regulate body temperature.
Two important circulation processes
Pulmonary circulation
Blood without oxygen comes into the right side of your heart and is sent to the lungs to get oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide. Then
the oxygenated blood comes back through the left side of your heart.
Systemic circulation
Blood that has just gotten oxygen from the lungs and returned through your heart’s left side is pushed out to the rest of your body’s
cells so they can receive oxygen and nutrients. The cycle starts again when blood without oxygen goes to the right side of your heart.

2. PHYSIOLOGY
PANCREAS AND ITS FUNCTIONS
The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells.
The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood
sugar.
Functions of the Pancreas
A healthy pancreas produces the correct chemicals in the proper quantities, at the right times, to digest the foods we eat.
 Exocrine Function:
The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to digestion. These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin
to digest proteins; amylase for the digestion of carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats. When food enters the stomach, these
pancreatic juices are released into a system of ducts that culminate in the main pancreatic duct. The pancreatic duct joins the common
bile duct to form the ampulla of Vater which is located at the first portion of the small intestine, called the duodenum. The common
bile duct originates in the liver and the gallbladder and produces another important digestive juice called bile. The pancreatic juices
and bile that are released into the duodenum, help the body to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
 Endocrine Function:
The endocrine component of the pancreas consists of islet cells (islets of Langerhans) that create and release important hormones
directly into the bloodstream. Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar, and glucagon, which
acts to raise blood sugar. Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the functioning of key organs including the brain, liver, and
kidneys.

3. PHYSIOLOGY
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
Your heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients
and hormones to muscles, tissues and organs throughout your body. Another part of the circulatory system is to remove waste from
cells and organs so your body can dispose of it.
Your heart pumps blood to the body through a network of arteries and veins (blood vessels). Your circulatory system can also be defined
as your cardiovascular system. Cardio means heart, and vascular refers to blood vessels.
The circulatory system also helps your body get rid of waste products. This waste includes:
 Carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing).
 Other chemical byproducts from your organs.
 Waste from things you eat and drink.
How does the circulatory system work?
Your circulatory system functions with the help of blood vessels that include arteries, veins and capillaries. These blood vessels work
with your heart and lungs to continuously circulate blood through your body. Here’s how:
1. The heart’s bottom right pumping chamber (right ventricle) sends blood that’s low in oxygen (oxygen-poor blood) to the lungs.
Blood travels through the pulmonary trunk (the main pulmonary artery).
2. Blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs.
3. Pulmonary veins carry the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart’s left atrium (upper heart chamber).
4. The left atrium sends the oxygenated blood into the left ventricle (lower chamber). This muscular part of the heart pumps blood
out to the body through the arteries.
5. As it moves through your body and organs, blood collects and drops off nutrients, hormones and waste products.
6. The veins carry deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the heart, which sends the blood to the lungs.
7. Your lungs get rid of the carbon dioxide when you exhale.

4. PHYSIOLOGY
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTION
Your respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. This system helps your body absorb oxygen from
the air so your organs can work. It also cleans waste gases, such as carbon dioxide, from your blood. Common problems include
allergies, diseases or infections.
What is the respiratory system?
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels.
The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout
the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.
What does the respiratory system do?
The respiratory system has many functions. Besides helping you inhale (breathe in) and exhale (breathe out), it:
 Allows you to talk and to smell.
 Warms air to match your body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level your body needs.
 Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
 Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you exhale.
 Protects your airways from harmful substances and irritants.
URINARY SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTION
The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. This system filters your blood, removing waste and excess
water. This waste becomes urine. The most common urinary issues are bladder infections and urinary tract infections (UTIs).
What is the urinary system?
The urinary system works as a filter, removing toxins and wastes from your body through urine. It uses a series of tubes and ducts to
pass this waste. These tubes are connected to your blood vessels and digestive system. Your urinary system helps the rest of your
body work properly.

5. PHYSIOLOGY
What does the urinary system do?
Your urinary system filters your blood to get rid of what your body doesn’t need. It eliminates extra water and salt, toxins, and other
waste products. Different parts of the urinary system perform tasks including:
 Filtering blood.
 Separating the toxins you don’t need from the nutrients you do need.
 Storing and carrying urine out of your body.
How does the urinary system clean my blood?
Your kidneys are an essential part of filtering your blood. Here’s how the urinary system works:
1. Your blood enters each kidney through lots of little arteries.
2. Your kidneys filter your blood, separating toxins from nutrients.
3. Vitamins, minerals, nutrients and proteins return to your bloodstream.
4. Waste products and urine move through your ureters to your bladder. Your bladder stores urine until you use the toilet.
5. Urine leaves your body through your urethra.