Pharmacology (measuring the neuronal membrane potential)
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1) The document discusses experiments using the giant axon of squid neurons and puffer fish toxin to study neuronal action potentials. 2) Specific experiments aimed to investigate the effects of sodium, potassium ion concentration, and drugs like tetrodotoxin, lidocaine, and 3,4-diaminopyridine on the action potential. 3) The voltage-clamp technique was used to stabilize membrane potential and measure permeability at different levels, helping to demonstrate how action potentials are generated and propagated through neurons.
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Action potentials animal systems
The document contains figures and captions that describe key concepts in neuroscience. It discusses ion channels and the membrane potential in neurons, how action potentials are generated and propagate, the roles of inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials, some major neurotransmitters like GABA, the structure and organization of the central and peripheral nervous systems, key brain regions involved in language and memory, and the use of functional MRI to study brain activity related to tasks.
LOCAL ANESTHESIA.pptx
Definition
Local anesthesia is defined as a loss of sensation in a circumscribed area of the body caused by depression of excitation in nerve endings or inhibition of the conduction process in peripheral nerves.
Important feature of LA
Loss of sensation without inducing a loss of consciousness
Desirable properties of Local anesthesia
It should not be irritating
It should not cause any permanent alteration of nerve structure
Its systemic toxicity should be low
Time of onset of anaesthesia should be short
It must be effective regardless of whether it is injected into the tissue or is applied locally to mucous membrane
The duration of action must be long enough to permit the completion of procedure.
It should have potency sufficient to give complete anesthesia without the use of harmful concentrated solutions
It should be relatively free from producing allergic reactions
It should be stable in solution and should readily undergo biotransformation in the body
It should be sterile or capable of being sterilized by heat without deterioration
Anterior Superior Alveolar Nerve Block
Infraorbital nerve block
Simple technique and Safe
Indications
Dental procedures involving more than 2 maxillary teeth and their overlying buccal tissues
When supraperiosteal injection are ineffective
Contraindications
Discrete treatment areas
Hemostasis of localized areas
Nerves anesthetized
1) Anterior superior alveolar nerve
2) Middle superior alveolar nerve
3) Infraorbital nerve
A) Inferior palpebral
B) Lateral nasal
C) superior labial
Areas Anesthetized
Pulps of max. central incisor through the canine on the injected side
Pulps of max. premolar and mesiobuccal root of the 1st molar
Buccal periodontium and bone
Lower eye, lat. Aspect of nose, upper lip
Target Area – Infraorbital Foramen
Landmarks
Mucobuccal fold
Infraorbital Notch
Infraorbital Foramen
Technique
2 Extra oral
Intra oral
Intraoral Technique
Infraorbital ridge is palpated and 1cm inferior to it, the infraorbital foramen is palpated with middle finger.
The needle is inserted at the apex of the canine fossa or along the long axis of the first premolar
Extra oral Technique
Infraorbital rim is palpated and infraorbital depression is felt 1cm inferior to it
A needle is inserted cutaneously near the foramen
Middle Superior Alveolar Nerve Block
Indications
Dental procedures involving only max. premolars
Where ASA nerve block fails to provide pulpal anesthesia distal to max. canine
Contraindications
Infection or Inflammation
Nerves Anesthetized
Middle superior alveolar nerve and terminal branches
Areas Anesthetized
Pulps of max. premolars, mesiobuccal root of max.1st molar
Buccal periodontal tissues and bone
Target area
Maxillary bone above the apex of max. 2nd premolar
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Tuberosity Block
Target area
PSA nerve – posterior, superior, and medial to the posterior border of maxilla.
Inferior Alveolar Nerve Block
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LOCAL ANESTHESIA.pptx
Definition
Local anesthesia is defined as a loss of sensation in a circumscribed area of the body caused by depression of excitation in nerve endings or inhibition of the conduction process in peripheral nerves.
Important feature of LA
Loss of sensation without inducing a loss of consciousness
Desirable properties of Local anesthesia
It should not be irritating
It should not cause any permanent alteration of nerve structure
Its systemic toxicity should be low
Time of onset of anaesthesia should be short
It must be effective regardless of whether it is injected into the tissue or is applied locally to mucous membrane
The duration of action must be long enough to permit the completion of procedure.
It should have potency sufficient to give complete anesthesia without the use of harmful concentrated solutions
It should be relatively free from producing allergic reactions
It should be stable in solution and should readily undergo biotransformation in the body
It should be sterile or capable of being sterilized by heat without deterioration
Anterior Superior Alveolar Nerve Block
Infraorbital nerve block
Simple technique and Safe
Indications
Dental procedures involving more than 2 maxillary teeth and their overlying buccal tissues
When supraperiosteal injection are ineffective
Contraindications
Discrete treatment areas
Hemostasis of localized areas
Nerves anesthetized
1) Anterior superior alveolar nerve
2) Middle superior alveolar nerve
3) Infraorbital nerve
A) Inferior palpebral
B) Lateral nasal
C) superior labial
Areas Anesthetized
Pulps of max. central incisor through the canine on the injected side
Pulps of max. premolar and mesiobuccal root of the 1st molar
Buccal periodontium and bone
Lower eye, lat. Aspect of nose, upper lip
Target Area – Infraorbital Foramen
Landmarks
Mucobuccal fold
Infraorbital Notch
Infraorbital Foramen
Technique
2 Extra oral
Intra oral
Intraoral Technique
Infraorbital ridge is palpated and 1cm inferior to it, the infraorbital foramen is palpated with middle finger.
The needle is inserted at the apex of the canine fossa or along the long axis of the first premolar
Extra oral Technique
Infraorbital rim is palpated and infraorbital depression is felt 1cm inferior to it
A needle is inserted cutaneously near the foramen
Middle Superior Alveolar Nerve Block
Indications
Dental procedures involving only max. premolars
Where ASA nerve block fails to provide pulpal anesthesia distal to max. canine
Contraindications
Infection or Inflammation
Nerves Anesthetized
Middle superior alveolar nerve and terminal branches
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Pulps of max. premolars, mesiobuccal root of max.1st molar
Buccal periodontal tissues and bone
Target area
Maxillary bone above the apex of max. 2nd premolar
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PSA nerve – posterior, superior, and medial to the posterior border of maxilla.
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3) Neurotransmitters bind to and open ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane, producing an electrical effect that may trigger another action potential.
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1. The document discusses the physiology of electrostimulation in the human body. It describes how axons function as electrical circuits and discusses cable properties like length constant and time constant.
2. Key topics covered include the factors that determine excitability, the refractory period, summation, adaptation and accommodation in response to electrical stimulation.
3. Diagnostic tests for electrostimulation are also mentioned, including measurements of rheobase and chronaxie from the strength-duration curve.
Parodi et al 2008 veneno y neuronas
The document summarizes a study that investigated the effects of low molecular weight components from the venom of the Chilean Black Widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) on synaptic activity. Whole-cell patch clamp techniques were used to study the effects of purified venom on rat hippocampal neuronal cultures. The venom increased neuronal membrane resistance, prolonged action potentials, and increased spontaneous synaptic activity in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. This demonstrates that the venom has pharmacological effects through low molecular weight fragments, despite L. mactans venom not containing alpha-latrotoxin like the European Black Widow spider venom.
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1. It introduces the organization of the nervous system and discusses nerve signal processing, sensory processing, motor control, consciousness, cognition, development, and recent advances.
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1) A slide showing a fibrin network entangling red blood cells and other blood cells, diagnosed as a clot.
2) Distended hepatocytes filled with fluid, diagnosed as edema.
3) Intestinal metaplasia where squamous cells are replaced by columnar cells.
4) Three slides showing blood vessels filled with red blood cells, fibroblasts, and inflammatory cells, diagnosed as granulation tissue.
Pathology (pathology of joint and soft tissue disorders)
Rhabdomyosarcoma is a malignant tumor of skeletal muscle that presents with different stages of maturation including immature rounded cells with pink cytoplasm and peripheral nuclei or large polyhedral cells with clear cytoplasm. Synovial sarcoma has variants including rounded cells arranged in sheets separated by clefts or spindle cells arranged in storiform patterns. It exists in monophasic or biphasic forms and is malignant. Leiomyosarcoma is a malignant soft tissue tumor of smooth muscle composed of spindle cells in different patterns including lines and whorls.
Pathology (microscopic feature of some tumors)
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1) Fibroma is a benign tumor arising from fibroblasts that contains mature and immature fibrous tissue with elongated spindle-shaped cells.
2) Leiomyoma is a benign smooth muscle tumor containing bundles of smooth muscle fibers in a whorl pattern and spindle-shaped fibroblast cells.
3) Thyroid adenoma is a benign glandular tumor composed of normal-looking follicles filled with colloid.
4) Adenocarcinoma is a malignant glandular tumor with abnormal acini and epithelium that shows signs of malignancy like irregular shapes and increased mitosis.
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Pathology (atherosclerosis)
This document summarizes four cases:
1. Capillary hemangioma, characterized by dilated vascular channels lined by endothelium containing red blood cells and separated by stroma.
2. Cavernous lymphgioma, characterized by dilated lymphatic channels lined by endothelium containing lymph and inflammatory cells and separated by stroma.
3. Hemangioendothelioma, characterized by nodules of epitheloid cells separated by stroma, containing intracytoplasmic vacuoles with red blood cells.
4. Kaposi Sarcoma, characterized by a dermal nodule of spindle cells forming slit-like vascular spaces containing erythrocytes.
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2. Specific locations for taking pulses are outlined, such as radial, femoral, popliteal, dorsalis pedis, and posterior tibial pulses. Differences like a delay between radial pulses or radial and femoral pulses can indicate issues.
3. Diagrams show the locations of peripheral pulses in the upper and lower limbs, such as the carotid, brachial, radial, femoral, popliteal, dorsalis pedis, and posterior tibial pulses.
Skill lab (plastic surgery)
A 35-year-old patient came to the emergency room with burns on his chest. His weight is 72 kg and the burned surface area is 18% of his total body surface area. Using the formula for calculating IV fluid replacement in burned patients, which is body weight x burned surface area / 2 x 4, the amount of fluid resuscitation needed for this patient is 2.5 liters.
Skill lab (hematology, physiology, microbiology, biochemistry)
The document summarizes several laboratory tests and procedures used in hematology, physiology, microbiology, and biochemistry. It describes bleeding time and coagulation time tests to assess platelet function. It also outlines the hematocrit test procedure to measure red blood cell volume percentage, and the blood grouping test to determine blood type based on antigen-antibody reactions. Procedures for blood culture collection and centrifugation to separate blood components are provided. Finally, it explains hemoglobin electrophoresis to measure different hemoglobin molecules and identify potential abnormalities.
Skill lab (basic examination)
The document outlines the 4 main techniques of physical examination: inspection which is examining the patient's body visually, palpation which involves touching inflamed areas of the body, percussion which is tapping parts of the body to compare sounds, and auscultation which uses a stethoscope to listen to body sounds. These techniques - inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation - form the basic physical examination.
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This document provides information on various endocrine-related topics including glucose tolerance testing, thyroid function testing, clinical examination of thyroid swellings, radiology of the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, and anti-thyroid drugs. It includes definitions, test types, results and interpretations, descriptions of clinical findings, imaging views and structures seen, and indications and side effects of drugs. The document aims to educate on evaluating and managing endocrine-related conditions through laboratory and imaging tests and pharmacological treatment.
Skill lab emergency (first aid and iv injection)
Triage is the process of prioritizing patients' treatment based on the severity of their condition. There are four categories ranging from red/immediate for life-threatening conditions to black/expectant for those who are dead. The ABCDE method is used to assess airway, breathing, circulation, disability, and exposure during triage. Intravenous cannulation involves inserting a tube into a patient's vein for infusions. The procedure has 15 steps including preparing equipment, identifying a vein, inserting the cannula, securing it, and checking for proper placement.
Skill lab physiology (motor examination tests)
This document outlines the components and process of performing a motor examination. It describes examining muscle mass, tone, power, coordination, gait, and reflexes. Deep tendon reflexes are tested using a reflex hammer at sites including the biceps, triceps, patella, and Achilles tendons. Abnormal reflex responses include spasticity, rigidity, and hypotonia. Motor strength is graded on a scale from 0 to 5. The plantar reflex test assesses upper motor neuron function.
Physiology (sensory examination tests)
1. The document outlines various tests used in sensory examination including tests for touch, pain, temperature, vibration, hearing, vision, and cortical sensations.
2. It describes the instruments used and procedures for tests like the two point discrimination test, Rinne's test, and Weber's test.
3. The tests assess primary sensations, cortical sensations, hearing, vision, and help identify lesions in the sensory cortex.
Physiology (measurement of arterial blood pressure)
This document summarizes the measurement of arterial blood pressure. It defines systolic and diastolic blood pressure as the force exerted on blood vessel walls during contraction and relaxation. It explains that blood pressure is typically measured in the brachial artery using a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope, by listening for sounds during inflation and deflation to determine the systolic and diastolic readings in mmHg. Finally, it outlines two methods for measuring blood pressure - palpation of the radial pulse to find systolic pressure only, or auscultation of the brachial pulse over the brachial artery to determine both systolic and diastolic pressure.
Physiology (heart sounds)
This document describes the four main heart sounds and how to auscultate them using a stethoscope. It explains that the first heart sound corresponds to closure of the atrioventricular valves and the R wave of an ECG. The second heart sound corresponds to closure of the semilunar valves and the T wave of an ECG. The third heart sound occurs during rapid ventricular filling between the T and P waves. The fourth heart sound corresponds to atrial contraction between the P and Q waves. It identifies the best areas over the heart to auscultate each sound using a stethoscope.
Physiology (electrocardiography ecg)
An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart over time using electrodes placed on the skin. An ECG is used to detect abnormalities in heart rhythm and function by measuring the heart's electrical signals through 12 leads that include 6 chest leads and 6 limb leads. The heart rate can be calculated from an ECG by counting the number of big squares between two R waves in a cycle and dividing 300 by that number.
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- 1. @OSAMA_Z96
- 2. * The Giant axon of Squids : Is a nerve fiber which radiates from the stellate ganglion, the axon is about 1mm in diameter. * Tetrodotoxin : Toxin produced from (Puffer fish), which causes paralysis by affecting the sodium ion transport in both the CNS & the PNS. * Lidocaine : Local anaesthetic (Na+ channel blocker) * 3,4-diaminopyridine : Used to treat Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) * Voltage-clamp technique : Necessary to : 1- Stabilize the membrane potential at a number of defferent levels. 2- Measure the permeability at those potentials.
- 4. 1- To demonstrate the neuronal action potential by electrical stimulation. 2- To demonstrate the neuronal action potential generation & propagation through the neuron. 3- To investigate the effect of ionic composition (Na & K) concentration on the nerve action potential in the squid giant axon. 4- To investigate the effect of certain drugs on the nerve action potential in the squid giant axon.
- 5. * Drug used in experiment : 1) Tetrodotoxin. 2) Lidocaine. 3) 3,4-Diaminopyridine. * Salt used in experiment : 1) Sodium ion (Na+). 2) Potassium ion (K+). * Instrument used in experiment : 1) Microelectrode : Record pulses. 2) Amplifier. 3) Stimulator : Stimulate pulses.
- 7. 50 mV 38 mV 25 mV 15 mV -56 mV Na conc. 120 mM Na conc. 70 mM Na conc. 50 mM Na conc. 0 Na conc. 33 mM K conc. Will be fixed on 5 mM Normal AP
- 8. The action potential is decreases, (More –ve charge inside the axon).
- 9. 50 mV K conc. 5 mM K conc. 0 mM K conc. 33 mM K conc. 70 mMK conc. 50 mM Na conc. Will be fixed on 120 mM Normal AP -94 mV -22 mV -16 mV -10 mV 0 mV K conc. 120 mM
- 10. The action potential is increases, (More +ve charge inside the axon).
- 11. 50 mV Normal AP Tetrodotoxin Conc. : 1E-006 M Lidocaine Conc. : 1E-006 M 3,4- Diaminopyridine Conc. : 1E-006 M -59 mV 42 mV 46 mV
- 12. The action potential is decreases, (Block Na channel and stop action potential propagation).