This document summarizes several theories of personality and adolescent development, including: 1. Freud's psychodynamic theory focusing on innate drives, early experiences, and defense mechanisms like repression and projection. 2. Erikson's psychosocial stages of development shaped by conflicts between maturation and societal expectations. 3. Social learning theory examining social modeling, attention, retention, reproduction, and conditioning. 4. Cognitive theories like Kohlberg's stages of gender identity and consistency development and gender schema theory organizing beliefs about sexes. Theories of adolescent development discussed include Marcia's identity statuses, Coleman's focal theory of "storm and stress," and Erikson's identity crisis stage. Evidence and criticisms

1. Personality Development
Dr Ros Weston
Psychology

2. Definition:
Child (1968)
“More or less stable, internal factors that make one person’s behaviour consistent
from one time to another, and different from the behaviour other people would
manifest in comparable situations”
• Stable
• Internal
• Consistent
• Different
Personality is ‘INTERNAL’
Freud’s theories on Personality Development
Change and development are the key words : internal process + past experiences
The dynamics of behaviour which is what distinguishes this theory from the cognitive
(Glassman, 1995)

3. Innate drives + early experiences
id ego super ego pleasure principle defence mechanisms
Anna Freud
“defence against instinct”
The child learns
defensive behaviours to
control id
Defence Mechanisms
1 Repression
2 Displacement
3 Projection
4 Denial
5 Intellectualisation
Psycho - sexual Development
Energy - libido
&
Eros & Thanatos
•Oral
•Anal
•Phallic (Oedipus & Electra complexes)
•Latency
•Genital

4. Other Defence Mechanisms
• Fixation
Affective strategies in personality development
• Regression
Case studies: Anna O
Little Hans
Myers & Brewin (1994) Childhood Memories
Williams (1994) Sexual Abuse
McGunnies (1949) Perception defence
“things are likely to be ignored if they are unpleasant or
emotionally threatening”
Levinger & Clarke (1961) supported this using emotionally
provoking words. (they recalled the words that had neutral
associations)
(Evaluatory comment on each of these and on Freud’s theory of personality
development)

5. Neo - Freudians
Erikson (1959)
Conflict
WAR
natural processes expectations of
of maturation society
Parents
friends
teachers
employers
norms &
values

6. Chart of Eight Stages
Evaluatory Comments
• Used clinical evidence (therapist case studies using Freud’s clinical method)
• theory imprecise & anecdotal
• experimental research provides indirect support for Erikson
(Ainsworth & Bell: 1970) (Bowlby, 1952)
• Stage 4 has been supported by work of Damon & Hart (1988)
(older children used more internal psychological terms. Younger children
focused on concrete & tangible )
• Strengths : - focuses on social process & ego development
- the facing of developmental tension / conflicts
- most of the conflicts lie with the family (Freud also said : When
you are looking at a ‘sick’ (mentally) or disturbed person you often
don’t have to look far for a cause. (that does not mean the parents
are to blame. It is the conflict that is problematic)
• Does not give detail of how you move from one stage to another
• Dwaretzky (1996) feels there is little convincing evidence for E theory
• Hard to test this theory
• The evidence is correlational
It gives a very tidy account of development

7. Social Learning Theory
Key term : Significant others
Social Modelling
• Attention
• Retention
• Reproduction
• Motivation
• Conditioning
• Bandura’s work
• What would help a child learn self - efficacy?
-? -? -? -?
Continue…………
Classical
Operant
Observation &
internalisation
Vicarious
reinforcement
Reciprocal determination
Self efficacy (self -
image & belief in self
This is exact
opposite of learned
helplessness

8. • Evidence - Bobo doll
- Harter & Monsour (1992)
- Bandura & Cervone (1983)
• Evaluatory Comment
- More than one self? (Baars, 1997)
- Not a development theory

9. Situationalism
• Bandura suggested that personality is not a stable trait of an individual
• Mischel & Peake’s theory (1982) suggest a consistency paradox. Research
failed to show consistency
• Behavioural specificity (M & P, 1982)
• We think it is a stable trait because we see people in similar situations
• Individual differences (M & P, 1993)
Person variables
• Cognitive & behavioural
• Encoding & personal constructs
• Expectancy
• Subjective stimulus value
• self - regulatory systems & plans
Evidence
• Context - dependent learning research (Abernety, 1940)
• Generalising learning
• Lack of fragmentation

10. What is gender?
(as part of personality)
Sex Gender Sexual identity
Gender identity
Gender role
Gender stereo types
Situation (upbrining &
social context)
Behaviour
See : - Debates and all the work we did on real and perceived differences
- Psychoanalytical theory
- Social learning
- Cognitive (Kohlberg)
- Behaviourist
- Humanistic (Carl Rogers : Erikson)

11. Kohlbergs (1966) Cognitive - developmental theory (1966)
“The child actively constructs his own experiences and they are not products of
social
training”
• Basic - gender identity (2-3½)
• Gender stability (3½ - 4½)
• Gender consistency (4½ - 7yrs)
(fits with Piaget’s notion of conservation)
Evidence
• Munroe, Shimmin & Munroe (1984)
These stages are cross - cultural.
Slaby & Frey (1975) - attending to some sex models.
Ruble, Balabon & Cooper (1981) Adverts & gender consistency.
Evaluatory Comments
• Cross cultural
• interactivity
• gender identity - increases gender role
• How they interact in the world requires gender identity
• Criticism : gender role behaviour - depends on gender consistency
• Contradictions
• Individualistic (not social context)

12. Gender Schema Theory
An organised set of beliefs about the sexes (Martin et al, 1987)
• in group, out group schema
• our gender schema
• children are not passive
• gender - schema’s help them pay attention to ………… & interpret the world &
what they remember
• gender schemas structure experience
Evidence : (Martin et al, 1987)
(Bradbard et al, 1986)
(Masters et al, (1979)
Evaluatory Comment
• seems to explain & fit with other theories of child development specially
cognitive
• individualistic
• schemas are overaggerated
• should be able to change schemas. As Durkin (1995) found: it is easier to
change concepts
Continued……...

13. Now :
Compare social learning theory yourself using biological; social
biological theory by explaining
• Theory (giving)
• evidence (including)
• evaluatory comment

14. Theories of Adolescent Development
Delinquency
Relationship with parents
Relationship with peers Cultural
differences
What evidence
is there that
these are
important
Marcia’s theory (1966-1980)
-Alternatives to choose from
-Have fun commitment been made
Four possible identity statuses
-Identity diffusion
-Foreclosure
-Moratorium
-Identity achievement
Evidence to support : Meilman
(1979)
Evidence against : (Munroe &
Adams (1977)
Coleman’s focal theory
(1974)
‘Storm & Stress’
Erikson’s theory (1902, 1994)
-Identity diffusion
-Identity crisis
-Counter evidence
-Support evidence
Intimacy
Diffusion
Diffusion
of
industry
Negative
identity
Gender &
individual
differences
alpha & beta
bias
The Isle of Wight Study
(1976) Rutter’s large scale
study.
What factors cause
disturbance in young people?
What is the problem of
retrospective data?