Facilitating Learning/ Child & Adolescent Development

1. Facilitating Learning/
Child & Adolescent
Develpment

2. 1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive,
motivational and socio-cultural factors that affect
learning. (5%)
2. Apply theories of learning & development to the
teaching-learning process.(8%)
3. Draw educational implications of research
findings related to child & adolescent learning &
development along with the biological, linguistic,
cognitive, social & psychological dimensions.(5%)

3. 4. Organize a learning environment that is
responsive to the learner’s needs and that
promotes fairness among learners of various
cultures, family background and gender.(2%)
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
• Cognitive & Metacognitive
• Motivational & Affective

4. • Developmental & Social
• Individual Differences
Cognitive/Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of complex subject matter is
most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from
information & experience.

5. 2. Goals of the learning process
Learners can create meaningful and coherent
representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge
Learners can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways
4. Strategic thinking
Learners can create & use a repertoire of
thinking & reasoning strat. To achieve complex
learning goals

6. 5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting &
monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative & critical thinking.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental
factors (culture, technology, instructional practices)

7. Motivational & Affective Factors
7. Motivatioal & emotional influences on learning
Learning is influenced by the learner’s motivation
(Motivation is influenced by emotion, beliefs, interests,
goals and habits of thinking)
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
Motivation to learn depends on the learner’s
creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity.

8. 9. Effects of motivation on effort
Extended effort & guided practice are needed to acquire
complex knowledge & skills
“ Without learner’s motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion”
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning
Learning is effective when differential development within
& across physical, intellectual, emotional and social
domains is taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations & communication with others

9. Individual Differences Factors
12.Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches,
and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience & heredity
13. Learning & Diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in
learner’s linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account

10. 14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high & challenging standards &
assessing the learner are integral parts of the learning
process
BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS
1. Schema-cognitive structures
2. Assimilation-the process of fitting a new experience
into an existing or previously created cognitive
structure or schema
3. Accommodation-the process of creating a new
schema

11. 4. Equilibrium-is achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
1.)Sensorimotor Stage
 Object Permanence-the ability to know that an object
exists even when out of sight
2.)Pre-operational Stage
 Symbolic Function-the ability to represent objects &
events
 Egocentrism-the tendency of the child to only see his
point of view & to assume that everyone also has his
same point of view

12. Centration- the tendency of the child to only
focus to one aspect of a thing or event or
exclude other aspects
Reversibility-children on this stage have the
inability to reverse their thinking
Animism-the tendency of children to attribute
human like traits or characteristics to
inanimate objects
Transductive reasoning-neither inductive nor
deductive

13. 3.) Concrete Operational Stage
 Decentering-the ability of the child to perceive
the different features of objects & situations
Reversibility-the child can follow that certain
operations can be done in reverse
Conservation-the ability to know that certain
properties of objects like number, mass, volume
or area do not change even if there is change in
appearance.

14. Seriation-the ability to order or arrange things
based on a certain dimension
4.) Formal Operational Stage
Hypothetical Reasoning- the ability to come up
with different hypothesis about a problem and to
gather and weigh data in order to make a final
decision of judgment
Analogical reasoning- the ability to perceive
relationship in one instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem

15. Deductive Reasoning- the ability to think logically
by applying a general rule to a particular instance
or situation
THE EIGHT PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
OF DEVELOPMENT
(Erik Erikson)
1.Infancy (0-18 mos.)
 Trust vs. Mistrust
Maladapatation-overly trusting/gullible

16. Malignancy-withdrawal characterized by
depression, paranoia, psychosis
Virtue- hope
2. Early Childhood (18 mos.-3 or 4 yrs.)
 Autonomy vs. Shame
Maladaptation- impulsiveness,
shameless willfulness
Malignancy-compulsiveness
Virtue-will power/determination

17. 3.Early Childhood (3 or 4-5 or 6 yrs.)
 Initiative vs. Guilt
Maladaptation-ruthlessness (sociopathy)
Malignancy- inhibition
Virtue-sense of purpose
4. Late Childhood (6-12 yrs.)
 Industry vs. Inferiority
Maladaptation-narrow virtuosity
Malignancy-inirtia (inferiority complex)
Virtue-competency

18. 5) Adolescence (Puberty-18 or 20 yrs.)
 Identity vs. Role Confusion
Maladaptation- fanaticism
Malignancy -repudiation
Virtue -fidelity/loyalty
6.)Young Adulthood (18-30 yrs.)
 Intimacy vs. Isolation
Maladaptation - promiscuity (intimate too freely)
Malignancy-exclusion
Virtue -love

19. 7.) Middle Adulthood ( mid 20s-late 50s)
 Generativity vs. Stagnation
Maladaptation -overextention
Malignancy -rejectivity/midlife crisis
Virtue-caring
8.) Late Adulthood (old age or 60s)
 Integrity vs. Despair
Maladaptation -presumption
Malignancy -disdain
Virtue-wisdom

20. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Sigmund Freud developed a theory of how our
sexuality starts from a very young ages and
develops through various fixations. If these
stages are not psychologically completed and
released, we can be trapped by them and they
may lead to various defense mechanisms to
avoid the anxiety produced from the conflict
in and leaving of the stage.

21. Age Name Pleasure Source Conflict
0-2 Oral Mouth: sucking,biting,
swallowing
Weaning
away from
mother's
breast
2-4 Anal Anus: defecating or
retaining faeces
Toilet
training
4-5 Phallic Genitals Oedipus
(boys),
Electra (girls)
6 to
puberty
Latency Sexual urges sublimated into
sports and hobbies. Same-sex
friends also help avoid sexual
feelings.
Puberty
onward
Genital Physical sexual changes
reawaken repressed
needs.Direct sexual feelings
towards others lead to sexual
gratification.
Social rules

22. Fixation
Strong conflict can fixate people at early stages.
Oral fixation
Oral fixation has two possible outcomes.
The Oral receptive personality is preoccupied with eating/drinking and
reduces tension through oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking
biting nails. They are generally passive, needy and sensitive to
rejection. They will easily 'swallow' other people's ideas.
The Oral aggressive personality is hostile and verbally abusive to
others, using mouth-based aggression.
Anal fixation
Anal fixation, which may be caused by too much punishment during
toilet training, has two possible outcomes.
The Anal retentive personality is stingy, with a compulsive seeking of
order and tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and perfectionist
The Anal expulsive personality is an opposite of the Anal retentive
personality, and has a lack of self control, being generally messy and
careless.

23. Phallic fixation
• At the age of 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, boys
experience the Oedipus Complex while girls experience the
Electra conflict, which is a process through which they learn
to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much
like that parent as possible.
• Boys suffer a castration anxiety, where the son believes his
father knows about his desire for his mother and hence
fears his father will castrate him. He thus represses his
desire and defensively identifies with his father.
• Girls suffer a penis envy, where the daughter is initially
attached to her mother, but then a shift of attachment
occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires her
father whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis
substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her
father and incorporates the values of her mother and
accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society.

24. Sigmund Freud described several components which have been very
influential in understanding personality.
• Three levels of awareness
• Freud identified three different parts of the mind, based on our
level of awareness.
• Conscious mind
• The conscious mind is where we are paying attention at the
moment. It includes only our current thinking processes and objects
of attention, and hence constitutes a very large part of our current
awareness.
• Preconscious mind
• The preconscious includes those things of which we are aware, but
where we are not paying attention. We can choose to pay attention
to these and deliberately bring them into the conscious mind.
• We can control our awareness to a certain extent, from focusing in
very closely on one conscious act to a wider awareness that seeks
to expand consciousness to include as much of preconscious
information as possible

25. Subconscious mind
• At the subconscious level, the process and content are
out of direct reach of the conscious mind. The
subconscious thus thinks and acts independently.
• One of Freud's key findings was that much behavior is
driven directly from the subconscious mind. This has
the alarming consequence that we are largely unable
to control our behavior, and in particular that which
we would sometimes prefer to avoid.
• More recent research has shown that the subconscious
mind is probably even more in charge of our actions
than even Freud had realized.

26. Three components of personality
individual’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are the result of the
interaction of the id, the superego, and the ego. This creates
conflict, which creates anxiety, which leads to Defense Mechanism
Id
• The Id contains our primitive drives and operates largely according
to the pleasure principle, whereby its two main goals are the
seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
• It has no real perception of reality and seeks to satisfy its needs
through what Freud called the primary processes that dominate the
existence of infants, including hunger and self-protection.
• The energy for the Id's actions come from libido, which is the
energy storehouse.
The id has 2 major instincts:
• Eros: the life instinct that motivates people to focus on pleasure-
seeking tendencies (e.g., sexual urges).
• Thanatos: the death instinct that motivates people to use
aggressive urges to destroy.

27. Ego
Unlike the Id, the Ego is aware of reality and hence
operates via the reality principle, whereby it recognizes
what is real and understands that behaviors have
consequences. This includes the effects of social rules
that are necessary in order to live and socialize with
other people. It uses secondary processes (perception,
recognition, judgment and memory) that are
developed during childhood.
• The dilemma of the Ego is that it has to somehow
balance the demands of the Id and Super ego with the
constraints of reality.
• The Ego controls higher mental processes such as
reasoning and problem-solving, which it uses to solve
the Id-Super ego dilemma, creatively finding ways to
safely satisfy the Id's basic urges within the constraints
of the Super ego.

28. Stages of Moral Development
by Lawrence Kohlberg (1971)
At this level, the child is responsive to cultural
rules and labels of good and bad, right or
wrong, but he interprets the labels in terms of
either the physical or hedonistic
consequences of action (punishment, reward,
exchange of favors) or the physical power of
those who enunciate the rules and labels. The
level is divided into the following three stages:

29. • Stage 0: Egocentric judgement. The child makes
judgements of good on the basis of what he likes and
wants or what helps him, and bad on the basis of what
he does not like or what hurts him. He has no concept
of rules or of obligations to obey or conform
independent of his wish.
• Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation.
The physical consequences of action determine its
goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning
or value of these consequences. Avoidance of
punishment and unquestioning deference to power
are values in their own right, not in terms of respect
for an underlying moral order supported by
punishment and authority

30. • Stage 2: The instrumental relativist
orientation. Right action consists of what
instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and
occasionally the needs of others. Human
relations are viewed in terms such as those of
the market place. Elements of fairness,
reciprocity, and equal sharing are present, but
they are always interpreted in a physical,
pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of "you
scratch my back and I'll scratch your", not
loyalty, gratitude, or justice.

31. II. Conventional Level
• At this level, the individual perceives the
maintenance of the expectations of his family,
group, or nation as valuable in its own right,
regardless of immediate and obvious
consequences. The attitude is not only one of
conformity to personal expectations and social
order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining,
supporting, and justifying the order and
identifying with the persons or group involved in
it. The level consists of the following two stages:

32. • Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance or
"good boy-nice girl" orientation. Good behavior
is what pleases or helps others and is approved
by them. There is much conformity to
stereotypical images of what is majority or
"natural" behavior. Behavior is frequently judged
by intention -- "he means well" becomes
important for the first time. One earns approval
by being "nice".
• Stage 4: The "law and order" orientation. The
individual is oriented toward authority, fixed
rules, and the maintenance of the social order.
Right behavior consists in doing one's duty,
showing respect for authority, and maintaining
the given social order for its own sake.

33. III. Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or
Principled Level.
• The individual makes a clear effort to define
moral values and principles that have validity
and application apart from the authority of
the groups of persons holding them and apart
from the individual's own identification with
the group. The level has the two following
stages:

34. Stage 5: The social contarct legalistic orientation
(generally with utilitarian overtones). Right action
tends to be defined in terms of general individual
rights and standards that have been critically examined
and agreed upon by the whole society. There is a clear
awareness of the relativism of personal values and
opinions and a corresponding emphasis upon
procedural rules for reaching consensus. Aside from
what is constitutionally and democratically agreed
upon, right action is a matter of personal values and
opinions. The result is an emphasis upon the "legal
point of view", but with an additional emphasis upon
the possibility of changing the law in terms of rational
considerations of social utility (rather than freezing it
in terms of stage 4 "law and order"). Outside the legal
realm, free agreement, and contract, is the binding
element of obligation. The "official" morality of the
American government and Constitution is at this stage.

35. Stage 6: The universal ethical-principle
orientation. Right is defined by the decision of
conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical
principles that appeal to logical
comprehensiveness, universality, and
consistency. These principles are abstract and
ethical (the Golden Rule, the categorical
imperative); they are not concrete moral rules
like the Ten Commandments. At heart, these
are universal principles of justice, of the
reciprocity and equality of the human rights,
and of respect for the dignity of human beings
as individual persons.

36. One of the most influential critiques of the
Kohlberg theory is to be found in Carol Gilligan’s
In a Different Voice (1982). Gilligan argues that
Kohlberg’s rule-oriented conception of morality
has an orientation toward justice, which she
associates with stereotypically male thinking,
whereas women and girls are perhaps more likely
to approach moral dilemmas with a "care"
orientation. One important issue in moral theory
that the Kohlberg-Gilligan debate raises is that of
the role and importance of moral feelings in the
moral life.