Personality copy

INTRODUCTION:- We know that some people are pleasant , whereas some are not so
pleasant , some are reserved & some are outgoing ; some are outspoken , whereas
others are quiet. These are mainly due to differences in their personality development
which involves unique experience of an individual throughout his or her life.
PERSONALITY: Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns
of thinking, feeling and behaving. The study of personality focuses on two broad
areas: One understands individual differences in particular personality
characteristics, such as sociability or irritability. The other is understanding how the
various parts of a person come together as a whole.
The word personality itself stems from the Latin word personas, which referred to a
theatrical mask work by performers in order to either project different roles or
disguise their identities.
DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY:-A brief definition would be that personality is made up
of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that make a person
unique. In addition to this, personality arises from within the individual and remains
fairly consistent throughout life.
Some other definitions of personality:
 "Personality refers to individuals' characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and
behaviour, together with the psychological mechanisms -- hidden or not -- behind
those patterns. This definition means that among their colleagues in other subfields
of psychology, those psychologists who study personality have a unique mand ate:
to explain whole persons."(Funder, D. C., 1997)
 Personality refers to, “the aggregate of the physical & mental qualities of the
individual as these interact & function in characteristic fashion with his
environment.”(Taylor)
COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY
So what exactly makes up a personality? As described in the definitions above, you
would expect that traits and patterns of thought and emotion make up an important
part. Some of the other fundamental characteristics of personality include:
 Consistency- There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors.
Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.
 Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but
research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
Personality is neither exclusively physical nor is exclusively mental. Similarly it is
neither the product of heredity exclusively, nor it is the product of acquired

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behavior or learning exclusively. Organization of personality entails the functioning
of both ‘body’ and ‘mind’. Psychophysical systems composed of habits, attitudes,
sentiments etc. Are the product of hereditary endowments and the acquired life
experiences of the individual.
 It impacts behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move
and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.
 Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can
also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social
interactions.
 Unique: Each individual personality is unique and specific. No two persons, not even
identical twins have exactly the same qualities and attributes.
 Dynamic: Although the personality of an individual remains stable to a large extent,
it can’t be said to be static, It is always dynamic and continuously in the process of
change and modification. Think about your own personality – what type of person
you are at the present moment and what type you were while studying in school.
 Self consciousness : Personality exhibits self consciousness and it is the proud
possession of human being. Man is described as having personality when the idea of
“self’ enters into his consciousness.
 Social: Personality is completely social. Personality has existence only in relation to
the external world. An individual’s relation with his environment, his feelings,
attitudes, are basic to the idea of personality. An integrated personality is one
which make harmonious adjustment to environment, particularly the social
environment.
STRUCTURE OF MIND: FREUD'S ID, EGO, & SUPEREGO
Freud came to see personality as having three aspects, which work together to
produce all of our complex behaviours: the Id, the Ego and the Superego. All 3
components need to be well-balanced in order to have good amount of psychological
energy available and to have reasonable mental health.
However, the Ego has a difficult time dealing with the competing demands of the
Superego and the Id. According to the psychoanalytic view, this psychological
conflict is an intrinsic and pervasive part of human experience. The conflict between
the Id and Superego, negotiated by the Ego, is one of the fundamental psychological
battles all people face. The way in which a person characteristically resolves the
instant gratification vs. longer-term reward dilemma in many ways comes to reflect on
their "character".
THE ID (�It�): functions in the irrational and emotional part of the mind. At birth a
baby�s mind is all Id - want want want. The Id is the primitive mind. It contains all
the basic needs and feelings. It is the source for libido (psychic energy). And it has
only one rule --> the �pleasure principle�: �I want it and I want it all now�. In trans

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-actional analysis, Id equates to "Child".
Id too strong = bound up in self-gratification and uncaring to others
THE EGO: (�I�): functions with the rational part of the mind. The Ego develops out of
growing awareness that you can�t always get what you want. The Ego relates to the
real world and operates via the �reality principle�. The Ego realises the need for
compromise and negotiates between the Id and the Superego. The Ego's job is to get
the Id's pleasures but to be reasonable and bear the long-term consequences in
mind. The Ego denies both instant gratification and pious delaying of
gratification. The term ego-strength is the term used to refer to how well the ego
copes with these conflicting forces. To undertake its work of planning, thinking and
controlling the Id, the Ego uses some of the Id's libidinal energy. In transactional
analysis, Ego equates to "Adult".
Ego too strong = extremely rational and efficient, but cold, boring and distant
THE SUPEREGO (�Over-I�): The Superego is the last part of the mind to develop. It
might be called the moral part of the mind. The Superego becomes an embodiment of
parental and societal values. It stores and enforces rules. It constantly strives for
perfection, even though this perfection ideal may be quite far from reality or
possibility. Its power to enforce rules comes from its ability to create anxiety.
The Superego has two subsystems: Ego Ideal and Conscience. The Ego Ideal provides
rules for good behaviour, and standards of excellence towards which the Ego must
strive. The Ego ideal is basically what the child�s parents approve of or value. The
Conscience is the rules about what constitutes bad behaviour. The Conscience is
basically all those things that the child feels mum or dad will disapprove of or punish.
Superego too strong = feels guilty all the time, may even have an insufferably saintly
personality.
TOPOGRAPHY OF MIND:FREUD'S ICEBERG MODEL FOR UNCONSCIOUS,
PRE-CONSCIOUS, & CONSCIOUS
Freud�s topographical model represents his �configuration� of the mind
According to Freud, there are three levels of consciousness:
 conscious (small): this is the part of the mind that holds what you�re aware
of. You can verablize about your conscious experience and you can think
about it in a logical fashion.
 preconscious (small-medium): this is ordinary memory. So although things
stored here aren�t in the conscious, they can be readily brought into
conscious.
 unconscious (enormous): Freud felt that this part of the mind was not directly
accessible to awareness. In part, he saw it as a dump box for urges, feelings
and ideas that are tied to anxiety, conflict and pain. These feelings and
thoughts have not disappeared and according to Freud, they are there,

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exerting influence on our actions and our conscious awareness. This is where
most of the work of the Id, Ego, and Superego take place.
Material passes easily back and forth between the conscious and the preconscious.
Material from these two areas can slip into the unconscious. Truly unconscious
material cant� be made available voluntarily, according to Freud. You need a
psychoanalyst to do this!
Iceberg metaphor for the mind�s layout:
We can use the metaphor of an iceberg to help us in understanding Freud's
topographical theory.
 Only 10% of an iceberg is visible (conscious) whereas the other 90% is
beneath the water (preconscious and unconscious).
 The Preconscious is allotted approximately 10% -15% whereas the
Unconscious is allotted an overwhelming 75%-80%.

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
There are a number of different theories about how personality develops.
(A) TYPE THEORIES:
 THE FOUR HUMORS AND CARL JUNG
Personality Type Theory and Trait Theory are two opposite sides of how psychologists
view Personality. Type theorists generally believe that each one of us belong to a
distinct type of personality.
Because of the differences and similarities we have, the personality type theory has
been developed in order for us to determine our personality during a certain point in
time. This theory is crucial to understand because some personality types need to be
dealt with for a person to be mentally and emotionally healthy.
Under the personality type theory, there are personality type taxonomies and
subtypes. The two most common of these taxonomies are the Four Humors, which
were credited to the ancient Greeks, and the eight personality types outlined by Carl
Jung.
 Ancient Greeks: The Four Humors
Two of the noblest ancient Greek philosophers, Hippocrates (400 BC) and Galen (140
AD) were among the first ones to logically classify the personality types of
people, which they called “humors”. The ancient Greek believed that each of the 4
humors was a result of an excess of one of the 4 bodily fluids. For them, the excess
amount of fluids determined a person’s character. The 4 humors included choleric
(yellow bile), melancholic (black bile), sanguine (blood) and phlegmatic (phlegm).
Below is a table showing the character that each humor or fluid represents.
Character Humor Fluid Produced by Element
Irritable Choleric Yellow bile Spleen Fire
Depressed Melancholic Black bile Gall bladder Earth
Optimistic Sanguine Blood Liver Air
Calm Phlegmatic Phlegm Lungs Water

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 CARL JUNG: EIGHT PERSONALITY TYPESTHE PERSONALITY TYPE THEORY OF CARL JUNG
WAS FOUNDED IN HIS IDEAS ON WHAT ATTITUDE MEANS. FOR JUNG, ATTITUDE IS A PERSON’S
PREDISPOSITION TO ACT IN A CERTAIN MANNER. HE SAID THAT THERE ARE TWO CONTRASTING
ATTITUDES- EXTROVERSION AND INTROVERSION, WHICH ARE OFTEN DEPICTED AS THE CLASSIC
YIN-YANG SYMBOLISM.
The introvert person is one that is more conscious of his inner world than his
environment. Although he still perceives the things going on around him, he is more
concerned of what’s going on inside himself. He focuses on his own fantasies,
ambitions, feelings and actions. Subjectivity for this kind of person is greater than
objectivity. Typically, the “shy” personality is under the introvert type of attitude. On
the other hand, the extrovert person gives more attention of what’s happening outside his
inner world. His inner cognitive processes are often set aside as he gets influenced by
his environment. Objectivity for this kind of person is greater than subjectivity. In
layman’s term, the “outgoing” personality is synonymous to extroversion.
Another important concept in Jung’s theory is the four functions of personality. The
first function is “feeling”, which is when a person recognizes the worth of conscious activities.
The second one is “thinking”, which makes a person learn the meaning of something. The third one is
“sensation”, which allows the person to know that a particular thing exists. The last one is
“intuition”, which gives him knowledge about something without having a conscious
understanding of where that knowledge originated. When these 4 functions are
combined with one of the two types of attitudes, the result would be eight varying
types of personality. The table below shows the eight different personality types:
Function
Attitude
Extrovert (objective) Introvert (subjective)
Feeling
Comfortable in social circumstances
and give opinions based on social
norms, values and generally accepted
beliefs
Often defies social norms of
thinking and speaks of internally-
established beliefs
Thinking
Learns abstract concepts that are
taught by his environment Interprets environmental stimuli
Sensing
Recognizes the world just the way it is
and gives perceptions in a matter-of-fact
manner
Views the world based on
internal reflections and own
attitudes.
Intuitive
Perceives things based on what society
dictates, disregarding the perceptions
brought about by his senses
Greatly influenced by internal
drives although he doesn’t have
a

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(B) Trait theories :
 ALLPORT, CATTELL, EYSENCK AND THE BIG FIVE
THE PERSONALITY TRAIT THEORY IS ONE OF THE MOST CRITICALLY DEBATED IN THE FIELD OF
PERSONALITY STUDIES. MANY PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE THEORIZED USING THE TRAIT APPROACH TO
PERSONALITY, WHICH ADVOCATES THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS. TO BETTER UNDERSTAND
THE PERSONALITY TRAIT THEORY, SUPPOSE YOU ARE ASKED TO DESCRIBE YOUR FRIEND'S
PERSONALITY. YOU MAY SAY THAT HE IS CHEERFUL, SOCIABLE AND FUN TO BE WITH. THESE TRAITS
AND MORE ARE THE MAIN FOCUS OF THE TRAIT APPROACH
 GORDON ALLPORT: TRAIT THEORY
ACCORDING TO GORDON ALLPORT, ONE ENGLISH DICTIONARY COULD PROVIDE YOU MORE THAN 4000
WORDS DESCRIBING OR SYNONYMOUS TO A SINGLE PERSONALITY TRAIT. BECAUSE OF THIS FINDING, HE
WAS ABLE TO CATEGORIZE TRAITS INTO THREE GENERAL LEVELS. THEY INCLUDE:
1. CARDINAL TRAITS
FOR SURE YOU HAVE HEARD THE WORDS "CHRIST-LIKE", "FREUDIAN" AND "NARCISSIST". THE ORIGINS
AND MEANINGS OF THESE TRAITS ARE VERY EASY TO DETERMINE. A PERSON MAY BE CALLED "CHRIST-
LIKE" IF HE SACRIFICES HIS OWN GOOD FOR THE BENEFIT OF OTHERS. CARDINAL TRAITS, THEREFORE, ARE
THE ONES THAT DOMINATE THE ENTIRETY OF A PERSON'S LIFE SUCH THAT A PERSON CARRYING SUCH
TRAIT MAY EVEN BECOME FAMOUS AND HAVE THEIR NAME BECOME SYNONYMOUS WITH THESE TRAITS.
2. CENTRAL TRAITS
THESE ARE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT YOU USE TO DESCRIBE ANOTHER PERSON ARE CALLED
CENTRAL TRAITS. EXAMPLES INCLUDE KIND, SINCERE, COOL AND JOLLY.
3. SECONDARY TRAITS
THESE TRAITS ARE THOSE THAT ONLY COME OUT UNDER CERTAIN SITUATIONS. FOR EXAMPLE, YOU
BECOME UNEASY WHEN A POP QUIZ IS ANNOUNCED.
 RAYMOND CATTELL: SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE
FROM ALLPORT'S LIST OF ABOUT 4,000 TRAITS, RAYMOND CATTELL DECREASED THE NUMBER INTO
1713 BECAUSE HE BELIEVED THAT UNCOMMON TRAITS SHOULD BE ELIMINATED. IN HIS RESEARCH,
CATTELL EVENTUALLY NARROWED DOWN THE LIST INTO 16 PERSONALITY TRAITS. HE THEN DEVELOPED
THE SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE (16PF), AN ASSESSMENT TOOL COMMONLY
UTILIZED TODAY. THE 16 PERSONALITY TRAITS INCLUDE:
1. Warmth
2. Reasoning
3. Emotional Stability

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4. Dominance
5. Liveliness
6. Rule-consciousness
7. Social Boldness
8. Sensit9. Vigilance
10. Abstractedness
11. Privateness
12. Apprehension/Apprehensiveness
13. Openness to change
14. Self-reliance
15. Perfectionism
16. Tension
 HANS EYSENCK: THREE DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon traits
in his list. They are:just three universal trails:
Unlike Allport and Cattell, theorist Hans Eysenck only included three general
1. INTROVERSION- EXTRAVERSION
As in Carl Jung's personality type theory, Eysenck classified people as either
introvert, those who directs focus on inner world, or extravert, those who gives more
attention to other people and his environment.
2. NEUROTICISM-EMOTIONAL STABILITY
THIS CATEGORY IS SYNONYMOUS TO "MOODINESS VERSUS EVEN-TEMPEREDNESS", WHERE IN A
NEUROTIC PERSON IS INCLINED TO HAVING CHANGING EMOTIONS FROM TIME TO TIME, WHILE AN
EMOTIONALLY STABLE PERSON TENDS TO MAINTAIN A CONSTANT MOOD OR EMOTION.
3. Pyschoticism

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THIS DIMENSION REFERS TO THE FINDING IT HARD TO DEAL WITH REALITY. A PSYCHOTIC PERSON
MAY BE CONSIDERED HOSTILE, MANIPULATIVE, ANTI-SOCIAL AND NON-EMPHATHETIC.
 THE BIG FIVE: FIVE-FACTOR MODEL
As a result of a thorough research on Cattell's and Eysenck's personality trait
theories, the Big Five theory was formulated. This model states that there are 5 core
traits which collaborate in order to form a single personality. These include:
1. Extraversion - tendency to be active, sociable, person-oriented, talkative,
optimistic, empathetic
2. Openness to Experience - tendency to be imaginative, curious, creative and may
have unconventional beliefs and values.
3. Agreeableness - tendency to be good-natured, kind-hearted, helpful, altruistic and
trusting.
4. Conscientiousness - tendency to be hardworking, reliable, ambitious, punctual and
self-directed.
5. Neuroticism - tendency to become emotionally unstable and may even develop
psychological distress
(C) PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work ofsigmund
Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality.
Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is probably the most well known theorist when it comes
to the development of personality. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development are,
like other stage theories, completed in a predetermined sequence and can result in
either successful completion or a healthy personality or can result in failure, leading
to an unhealthy personality. This theory is probably the most well known as well as
the most controversial, as Freud believed that we develop through stages based upon
a particular erogenous zone. During each stage, an unsuccessful completion means
that a child becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either over– or
under-indulges once he or she becomes an adult.
Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral

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Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of
personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite
his or her nails. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent
upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight
these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.
Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and
retaining feces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn
to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation
during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control
(anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and
disorganized (anal expulsive).
Phallic Stage (ages three to six). The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that
during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because
of this, he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the
mother’s affection. During this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will
punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of feelings is
known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed
his father and married his mother).
Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing unconscious
sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with this, it has
been termed the Electra Complex by more recent psychoanalysts.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his
father, boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By
identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies
himself as a male, and represses his sexual feelings toward his mother. A fixation at
this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and
weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age six to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and
children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.
Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of
puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned
during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex
peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.
 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Like Piaget, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) maintained that children develop in a
predetermined order. Instead of focusing on cognitive development, however, he was
interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of self. Erikson’s
Theory of Psychosocial Development has eight distinct stage, each with two possible

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outcomes. According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a
healthy personality and successful interactions with others. Failure to successfully
complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can
be resolved successfully at a later time.
Trust Versus Mistrust. From ages birth to one year, children begin to learn the ability to
trust others based upon the consistency of their caregiver(s). If trust develops
successfully, the child gains confidence and security in the world around him and is
able to feel secure even when threatened. Unsuccessful completion of this stage can
result in an inability to trust, and therefore an sense of fear about the inconsistent
world. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of
mistrust in the world around them.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Between the ages of one and three, children begin to
assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to
play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. If children in
this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If
children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame
or doubt in their own abilities.
Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age six, children assert
themselves more frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up games, and
initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of
initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children
develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore
remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
Industry vs. Inferiority. From age six years to puberty, children begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments. They initiate projects, see them through to
completion, and feel good about what they have achieved. During this time, teachers
play an increased role in the child’s development. If children are encouraged and
reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their
ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by
parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities
and therefore may not reach his potential.
Identity vs. Role Confusion. During adolescence, the transition from childhood to
adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to
look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. During this
period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the
outcome of their explorations. This sense of who they are can be hindered, which

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results in a sense of confusion ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up")
about themselves and their role in the world.
Intimacy vs. Isolation. Occurring in Young adulthood, we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term
commitments with someone other than a family member. Successful completion can
lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within
a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to
isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Generativity vs. Stagnation. During middle adulthood, we establish our careers, settle
down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part
of the bigger picture. We give back to society through raising our children, being
productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations.
By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair. As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow
down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that
we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see
ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt
about our pasts, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become
dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.
(D) BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the
individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable
behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account.
Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson.
 PERSONALITY AND SKINNER
B.F. Skinner proposed that our differences in our learning experiences are the main
reason behind our individual differences in our behavior. And we learn these patterns
of behavior either directly (reward as positive reinforcement of good behavior or
punishment as a negative reinforcement of bad behavior) or indirectly (through
observational learning or modeling).

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Skinner believed that it is simply human nature that we behave in such a way that we
would receive rewards or favorable things. If we want to experience reinforcement,
then we should develop personality traits that are positive, such as those attributes
included in the "agreeableness" category of the Big Five (e.g. being understanding,
compassionate, empathetic, and a positive thinker). In this sense, Skinner argued that
we respond to every kind of reinforcement, and that our behavior and personality
traits can be shaped and controlled by the society. In addition to this, Skinner implied
that if we want our negative traits to be changed into positive ones, we must changed
our environment first. This strict behaviorist point of view tries to refute other
psychologists belief that we must alter our inner self first (that is, our own personality
traits) before we can fully experience the change that we want.
 PERSONALITY AND ROTTER
When Julian Rotter started developing his social learning theory, he refused to
embrace the ideologies of Freudian Psychoanalysis, which was the dominating
viewpoint of the circle of psychologists during his time. Instead, he utilized the law of
effect, wherein people are being driven to pursue positive reinforcement and to avert
negative reinforcement. According to his theory, personality and behaviorism are not
connected by our physiological instincts and drives.
The main viewpoint in the social learning theory of Rotter is that personality is a
representation of the contact between the person and his environment. Therefore, his
theory posits that we must consider both the individual and his environment before
having a full understanding of his behavior. In line with this, Rotter believed that
personality is a set of potentials that man uses to respond in certain circumstances.
For Rotter, personality and behavior can always be altered. According to him,
changing the environment the individual is in and changing his way of thinking would
lead to a change in his behavior, and therefore in his personality traits also change
according to that specific situation. In contrast with psychoanalytical theories and
strict behavioral theories, Rotter argues that humans do not just behave to avoid
punishment; rather, we are motivated to act by our life goals and our vision to
maximize the rewards we would receive. Now that's a more optimistic way to view
personality and behavior, isn't it?
(E) HUMANIST THEORIES PERSONALITY AND ROGERS
In his theory, Rogers stated that the organism has one basic goal: self-actualization.
He expressed his extremely optimistic approach when he explained that all of us have
the tendency to grow until we reach “actualization”. According to him, we exist
because we need to gratify this need.
Rogers described a “fully functioning person” as someone who is actively taking steps
to self-actualization. In relation to personality, this individual is open-minded and
trusting to their own feelings and their environment.

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Rogers’ theory emphasized that the chief indicator that we will reach self-
actualization is our experiences during childhood. Every child needs to obtain
unconditional love and acceptance from his significant others. However, today’s
society dictates that a child will only be loved and taken good care of if he suits the
expectancies of the significant others (e.g. quiet, well-mannered, obedient). Because
of this, Rogers theorized that these external conditions give an increasing level of
influence to the person’s behavior. When his behavior and actions are continually
reinforced by such conditions, the individual develops the personality type that
corresponds to the generality of his behavior.
 PERSONALITY AND MASLOW
One of the most common models used in psychology, the Hierarchy of Needs was the
result of Abraham Maslow’s research on the basic motivations of animals and humans.
Maslow explained the human needs in a pyramid-like figure. At the bottom of the
pyramid are the physiological needs (air, food, water, etc). Next to it are the safety
and security needs (shelter, protection, etc). Love and belongingness needs come
next (acceptance, affection, friendship, etc). The fourth portion includes the self-
esteem needs (sense of mastery, power, appreciation, etc). And at the top is self
actualization, or the tendency of being your finest. These five human needs are the
ones that motivate us- to go from primitive needs to the higher needs.
Just as what Rogers theorized, Maslow believed that our ultimate life goal is self-
actualization. Some characteristics of a self-actualized person are:
1. Autonomous and independent
2. Have accurate perceptions of reality
3. Is able to accept himself, others and the society
4. Often feels as one with nature
5. Democratic and Appreciative
Becau ecause it is human nature to aim for these positive characteristics, we tend to
 PERSONALITY AND KELLY
The theory developed by George Kelly was grounded in the thinking that we have
various ways of interpreting and predicting circumstances, and that this leads to our
individual differences. These differences he dubbed as “personal constructs” are the
tools we use in acquiring information from the outside world and processing them
inside our minds. When we interact with our environment and within ourselves, this
manner of interacting is, for Kelly, our personality.
Kelly’s humanistic theory is based on the Fundamental Postulate, which says that the
manner by which a person anticipates events psychological channelizes his process.
This means that our actions are determined by our expectancies of the outside world,
based on our interpretation of past experiences. For instance, if an individual views
others as open-minded and friendly, he would have a greater tendency to become

~ 15 ~
more sociable and open to people. However, if he sees others as rude and egocentric,
he would tend to trust only himself and become indifferent.
(F) SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
 BANDURA AND MISCHEL
How is personality developed? There are many theories that attempt to give us a
clear, logical answer to this fundamental question. One category of these theories is
the social cognitive theories by Bandura and Mischel. Let us examine each theorist's
views on personality.
 PERSONALITY AND BANDURA
In his social cognitive theory of personality, Bandura included the concept of
observational learning as one of the main theoretical points. He argued that
reinforcement does not simply work as a mechanism, but it is actually the provider of
information of the next reinforcement to be given once the behavior is repeated.
Bandura pointed out that in order for the individual to repeat an agreeable behavior,
he must include his intellectual processes, in contrast with Skiner's belief that
thinking only occurs inside a "black box". In this sense, Bandura agreed that
environment causes behavior, but behavior can also cause environment. This chief
concept in his theory is called reciprocal determinism. Bandura's approach to
personality can be gleaned by this situation: Suppose an adolescent shows his
aggressive personality trait because he is maltreated by his peers. When this person
expresses his aggression by way of violent acts, he can trigger either a higher level of
aggression or fear inside his peers' minds, therefore changing his environment.
After theorizing that personality as revealed in his behavior and environment belong to
a two-way process, Bandura later proposed that there is a third factor that must be
considered in this kind of interaction- the person's psychological processes. He said
that our capacity to process language and images and other sensory stimuli in our
minds have an effect on how we behave, how we develop our personality traits, and
thus, how we affect our environment. When he introduced this concept, he became
included in the behaviorist-cognitivist circle of psychologists.
 PERSONALITY AND MISCHEL
Somehow similar to Bandura's proposal, Walter Mischel's Theory of Personality states
that an individual's behavior is influenced by two things - the specific attributes of a
given situation and the manner in which he perceives the situation. In contrast to the
traditional social cognitive theories, Mischel argued that a person only behaves in a
similar manner whenever these actions are highly probable to yield into the same
results. He emphasized that we have individual differences, so our values and
expectancies must be consider in predicting a person's behavior and personality.
According to Mischel, there are five person variables that contribute to the conditions
of a specific situation. They are used in predicting how a person will most likely
behave.

~ 16 ~
1. Competencies - our intellectual capabilities as well as social skills.
2. Cognitive Strategies - the different perceptions of a specific event. For instance,
what may be "threatening" for you may be "challenging" to another person.
3. Expectancies - the expected results of different behaviors that are realized by the
person inside his mind.
4. Subjective Values - the respective value of each possible outcomes of various
behaviors.
5. Self-regulatory systems - the groups of rules and standards that people adapt to in
order to regulate their behavior.
In the end, Mischel believes that personality per se does not exist, and that our traits
are merely cognitive strategies or things that we do for us to obtain the kind of reward
we want.
 Cognitive Development in Children
Probably the most cited theory in the cognitive development in children is Jean
Piaget (1896-1980). As with all stage theories, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development maintains that children go through specific stages as their intellect and
ability to see relationships matures. These stages are completed in a fixed order with
all children, even those in other countries. The age range, however can vary from
child to child.
Sensorimotor Stage. This stage occurs between the ages of birth and two years of
age, as infants begin to understand the information entering their sense and their
ability to interact with the world. During this stage, the child learns to manipulate
objects although they fail to understand the permanency of these objects if they are
not within their current sensory perception. In other words, once an object is removed
from the child’s view, he or she is unable to understand that the object still exists.
The major achievement during this stage is that of Object Permanency, or the ability
to understand that these objects do in fact continue to exist. This includes his ability
to understand that when mom leaves the room, she will eventually return, resulting in
an increased sense of safety and security. Object Permanency occurs during the end
of this stage and represents the child’s ability to maintain a mental image of the
object (or person) without the actual perception.
Preoperational Stage. The second stage begins after Object Permanency is achieved
and occurs between the ages of two to seven years of age. During this stage, the
development of language occurs at a rapid pace. Children learn how to interact with
their environment in a more complex manner through the use of words and images.
This stage is marked by Egocentrism, or the child’s belief that everyone sees the
world the same way that she does. The fail to understand the differences in
perception and believe that inanimate objects have the same perceptions they do,
such as seeing things, feeling, hearing and their sense of touch.
A second important factor in this stage is that of Conservation, which is the ability to
understand that quantity does not change if the shape changes. In other words, if a
short and wide glass of water is poured into a tall and thin glass. Children in this

~ 17 ~
stage will perceive the taller glass as having more water due only because of it’s
height. This is due to the children’s inability to understand reversibility and to focus
on only one aspect of a stimulus (called centration), such as height, as opposed to
understanding other aspects, such as glass width.
Concrete Operations Stage. Occurring between ages 7 and about 12, the third stage of
cognitive development is marked by a gradual decrease in centristic thought and the
increased ability to focus on more than one aspect of a stimulus. They can understand
the concept of grouping, knowing that a small dog and a large dog are still both dogs,
or that pennies, quarters, and dollar bills are part of the bigger concept of money.
They can only apply this new understanding to concrete objects ( those they have
actually experienced). In other words, imagined objects or those they have not seen,
heard, or touched, continue to remain somewhat mystical to these children, and
abstract thinking has yet to develop.
Formal Operations Stage. In the final stage of cognitive development (from age 12 and
beyond), children begin to develop a more abstract view of the world. They are able to
apply reversibility and conservation to both real and imagined situations. They also
develop an increased understanding of the world and the idea of cause and effect. By
the teenage years, they are able to develop their own theories about the world. This
stage is achieved by most children, although failure to do so has been associated with
lower intelligence.
WHAT ARE THE FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
(I) Heredity
It provides the child with certain endowments to? With- Hereditary factors may be
summed as constitutional biological and physiological factors:
1.ConstitutionalFactors
The constitution of an individual is an effective factor in determining the type of his
Personality. There can be 3 bodily types of personality- (1) short and stout, (2) tall and
thin, (3) muscular and well Proportioned. We are always impressed by an individual
who has a muscular and a well proportioned body. Height, Weight, physical defects,
health and strength affect Personality.
2. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

~ 18 ~
The working of the nervous system, glands and blood chemistry determines our
characteristics and habitual modes of behaviour. These factors form the biological
basis of our personality.
Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality.
Adler points out that personality defects lead to the development of inferiority
complex and the mental mechanism of compensation. This aspect also includes the
mental ability of the child.
It is this ability which enables him to mould the social environment according to his
requirements.
3. Intelligence
Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent can make better
adjustment in home, school and society than those who are less intelligent.
4. Sex Differences
Sex differences play a vital role in the development of personality of individual. Boys
are generally more assertive and vigorous. They prefer adventures. Girls are quieter
and more injured by personal, emotional and social problems.
5. NervousSystem
Development of personality is influenced by the nature of nervous system.
(II) Environment
The sociologists emphasize that the personality of the individual develops in a social
environment. It is in the social environment, that he comes to have moral ideas, social
attitudes and interests. This enables him to develop a social 'self which is another
term for personality.
The important aspects of the environment are as follows:
(1) PhysicalEnvironment
It includes the influence of climatic conditions of a particular area or country on man
and his living.
(2) SocialEnvironment
The child has his birth in the society. He learns and lives there. Hence, the social
environment has an important say in the personality development of the child.
(3) FamilyEnvironment

~ 19 ~
Family is the cradle of all social virtues. The first environment, the child moves in, is
his home. Here the child comes in contact with his parents and other family member
his likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional
responses all are shaped in early childhood.
The type of training and early childhood experiences received from the family play an
important role in the development of personality.
Besides this, economic factors i.e., economic condition of the family and the type of
relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child.
(4) Cultural Environment
The cultural environment refers to certain cultural traditions, ideals, and values etc.,
which are accepted in a particular society. All these factors leave a permanent
impression on the child's personality.
(5) SchoolEnvironment
Schools play an important role in molding the personality of the children because a
significant part of a child's life is spent in school between the ages of 6 and 20 years.
In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents.
The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the
superego and new models for imitation and identification, all of which contribute their
share in molding personality
In addition to the above there are many other social factors which influence the
development of personality of a child which are as follows:-
(a) LANGUAGE
Human beings have a distinctive characteristic of communication through language.
Language is an important vehicle by which the society is structured and culture of the
race transmitted from generation to generation.
The child's personality is shaped by the process of interaction through language with
other members of his environment.
(b) SOCIAL ROLE
The child has to play several roles like son, brother student, officer, husband, father,
etc., throughout his life at rent stages of his development. Social roles may be
described as process by which the co -operative behaviour and communications
among the society members are facilitated.
(c) SELF CONCEPT
Self concept influences our personality development in two ways-(1) If other people
hold high positive "ergative enhances our self and (2) If others hold may us, it creates
feelings of worthlessness and to self-defense or withdrawal from social situation.

~ 20 ~
(d) IDENTIFICATION
Identification is an important mechanism by which we try to imitate the physical,
social and mental characteristics of our model. It is a very important relationship with
others.
(e) INTER-PERSONAL RELATIONS
Inter-personal relations among the members of a society are important means which
help in the development of certain social personality characteristics like attraction
towards others, concept of friendship, love, sympathy, hostility and also isolation
which is a negative orientation.
(III) PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
These include our motives, acquired interests, our attitudes, our will and character,
our intellectual capacities such as intelligence i.e., the abilities to perceive, to
observe, to imagine, to think and to reason
These factors determine our reactions in various situations and thus affect our
personality, growth and direction. An individual with a considerable amount of will
power will be able to make decisions more quickly than others.
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
“HUMAN BEHAVIOUR FLOWS FROM 3 MAIN SOURCES : DESIRE EMOTION & KNOWLEDGE. “
(by …..…….PLATO)
Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humansand which are
influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis,
persuasion, coercion and genetics.
FACTORS AFFECTING OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
 GENETICS
Long before Charles Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species in 1859,
animal breeders knew that patterns of behavior are somehow influenced by
inheritance from parents. Studies of identical twins as compared to less closely
related human beings, and of children brought up in adoptive homes, have helped
scientists understand the influence of genetics on human behavior. The study
of human behaviour genetics is still developing steadily with new methods such as
genome-wide association studies.[1]
 SOCIAL NORMS
Social norms, the often-unspoken rules of a group, shape not just our behaviours but
also our attitudes. An individual’s behavior varies depending on the group(s) they are a
part of, a characteristic of society that allows to norms heavily impact society
 CORE FAITH AND CULTURE

~ 21 ~
Another important aspect of human behavior is their “core faith”. This faith can be
manifested in the forms of religion, philosophy, culture, and/or personal belief and
often affects the way a person can behave.
Morals are another factor of core faith that affects the way a person behaves.
Emotions connected to morals including shame, pride, and discomfort and these can
change the way a person acts.
Most importantly, shame and guilt have a large impact on behavior.
Lastly, culture highly affects human behavior. The beliefs of certain cultures are
taught to children from such a young age that they are greatly affected as they grow
up. These beliefs are taken into consideration throughout daily life, which leads to
people from different cultures acting differently. These differences are able to alter
the way different cultures and areas of the world interact and act.
 ATTITUDE
An attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor toward a person, place, thing, or
events. The interesting thing about an attitude and human beings is that it alters
between each individual. Everyone has a different attitude towards different things. A
main factor that determines attitude is likes and dislikes. The more one likes
something or someone the more one is willing to open up and accept what they have
to offer.When one doesn’t like something, one is more likely to get defensive and shut
down.
CONCLUSION:
Learning about personality type helps us to understand why certain areas in life come
easily to us, and others are more of a struggle. Generally, people who have the same
strengths in the dimensions will seem to “click”, whereas who have different
strengths in the dimensions will not see eye-to-eye on many things. People will
normally gravitate toward others who have similar strengths and weaknesses.
People’s values, beliefs, decisions, and actions will be greatly influenced by all four of
the stronger dimensions in their typology. Although a person’s typology cannot be
changed to its opposite, each person can learn to strengthen the weaker dimensions
to some extent and to develop personal life strategies to overcome problems that
result from the weaknesses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Chapter 3: Personality Development. [1 screen]. Available at:
http://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego.html Accessed October, 12, 2014.

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2. Personality type. [1 screen]. Available at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_type#Type_theories Accessed October, 18,
2014.
3. Social Cognitive Theories of Personality. [1 screen]. Available at:
https://explorable.com/social-cognitive-theories-of-personality?gid=1601 Accessed
October, 18, 2014.
4. Freud's Iceberg Model for Unconscious, Pre-conscious, & Conscious [1 screen].
Available at: http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L8-
3TopographyMindIceberg.html Accessed October, 18, 2014.
5. Structure of Mind: Freud's Id, Ego, & Superego. [1 screen]. Available at:
http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L8-4StructureMindIdEgoSuperego.htm
Accessed October, 18, 2014.
6. Personality Development. [1 screen]. Available at:
www.personalitydevelopment.org Accessed October, 18, 2014.
7. Personality and Personality Development - An Overview . [1 screen]. Available at:
managementstudyguide.com/personality-development.htm Accessed October, 18,
2014.
8. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. [1 screen]. Available at:
www.angelfire.com/folk/personalitydev/personalitydev.htm Accessed October, 20,
2014

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