The document discusses several theories of personality: - Psychoanalytic theory sees personality arising from the id, ego, and superego, and their interactions. It emphasizes unconscious drives and early childhood experiences. - Social learning theory views personality as shaped by environmental conditioning through reinforcement or punishment. - Humanistic theories see personality as striving for self-actualization based on an hierarchy of needs from physiological to self-transcendence. - Cognitive theories see personality developing through stages of information processing and representation from infancy to formal operations. - Evolutionary and sociobiological theories view personality traits as adaptations for survival and reproduction.

2. /ˌpərsəˈnalədē/
 the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive
character. (Oxford Languages)
 a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality embraces moods,
attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people.
It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one
person from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the
environment and to the social group. (britannica.com)
 "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his characteristics behavior and thought" (Allport, 1961, p. 28).
 The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person unique” (Weinberg
& Gould, 1999).

3. In plain English, it is what
makes you you.
https://www.verywellmind.com/personality-psychology-study-guide-2795699

4.  Personality is organized and usually consistent. We tend to express certain
aspects of our personality in different situations and our responses are generally
stable. (A student who has poor learning habit usually gets low scores in exams.)
 Although personality is generally stable, it can be influenced by the
environment. For example, while your personality might lead you to be shy in
social situations, an emergency might lead you to take on a more outspoken and
take-charge approach.
 Personality causes behaviors to happen. You react to the people and objects in
your environment based on your personality. From your personal preferences to
your choice of a career, every aspect of your life is affected by your personality.

5. /ˈTHirē/
 a supposition (an uncertain belief) or a system of ideas intended to explain something,
especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained. It
is a set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based. (Oxford Languages)

7. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality
development tells us that human personality is the result
of three different but fundamental structures – the id, the
ego, and the superego. Psychoanalytic theory concentrates
on awareness levels combined with our experiences in
early childhood that together can form the basis of certain
mental disorders.
(https://biologydictionary.net/psychoanalytic-theory/)

8. Perhaps the most impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the human
mind. His model divides the mind into three layers, or regions:
(Psychoanalytic Iceberg)

9.  Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live;
 Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of everything
we can recall or retrieve from our memory;
 Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the
processes that drive our behavior, including primitive and instinctual desires
(McLeod, 2013).
https://positivepsychology.com/psychoanalysis/

10.  ID
 EGO
 SUPEREGO

11. ID
 The id is the most basic of these components and describes instinctive responses.
Every part of the personality present at birth is composed of the id. This is the drive
that keeps the human species alive and responds to our primitive urges and needs. It
is, therefore, the driving force of our personality. Without it, we would not survive.
 Freud saw the personality of a newborn as pure id; this component remains in the
human mind throughout life but makes space as the other two components develop.
 Very little can be done to change the id – it is a fixed entity. We must survive. This
means the id is an unconscious component; when a newborn is hungry it will cry until
it has been fed. It does not worry if its parents must wake in the middle of the night; it
is unable to wait for an appropriate time; it does not consider whether food is available
or not.
 This is why the id is driven by the pleasure principle – instinctive behaviors that
immediately seek pleasure and/or avoid pain. When the id is under stress, this stress
must be alleviated as quickly as possible. It is a selfish trait.
 Sexual reproduction – the libido – is also part of the id. Any behavior that contributes
to survival either for an individual or for a species is included in unconscious, innate
behavior.

12. EGO
 As we grow older, we learn more about the world around us. While a baby will
scream until it is fed, a toddler can learn that this need will be met when he or she
is washed and dressed, for example.
 The ego operates according to the reality principle, usually by way of compromise.
The line between id and ego is blurred; the latter has the capacity to regulate the
former.
 Our ego is present in every level of awareness. It is also geared towards pleasure-
seeking and pain-avoiding behavior but considers other things. Repressed
thoughts are often repressed because we know that certain actions will lead to
punishment. Our many defense mechanisms are based upon the ego – denial,
fantasy, projection, and regression, for example.
 When we think of ego, we should not imagine it in the modern sense of the word (a
heightened sense of self-importance) but as a combination of judgment and self-
control. It should also be made clear that the ego concerns selfish behavior – we
compromise to avoid pain or because controlling the id will ultimately be of
benefit. In other words, someone decides not to steal for a purely selfish reason –
not because they do not wish to cause anxiety to another person, but because they
do not want to get caught.

13. SUPEREGO
 The superego of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is centered on the conscience.
Conscience is the result of learned behavior that evolves through the influence of
the people around us. Someone brought up to believe that stealing is wrong even if
they are assured that no-one will be hurt. All human belief systems and cultures
depend on the capacity of the human superego, from religious law to personal
dietary choices.
 For most of us, parents are the initial source of superego development. As their
influence recedes, responsibility is passed on to teachers, colleagues, and friends.
A child’s superego is nearly always identical to that of its parents.
 Unlike the ego, the superego is the opposite of the id. It is rarely selfish. People
with an over-developed superego will put the needs of others first. Even so, all
three components work together. The line between ego and superego is blurred as
both depend on two factors – the low capacity of a child to come up with its own
logic and reasoning, and the Oedipus complex. This complex refers to a child’s
unconscious desire for the opposite-gender parent and jealousy toward the same-
sex parent. Most psychotherapists believe that Freud placed too much significance
on this part of his psychoanalytic theory.

14.  Id examples correspond to basic survival. Hunger creates a desire for food, thirst
for water, the drive to reproduce becomes an act of sexual intercourse, and danger
makes us fight or run.
 Ego examples counteract the urgency of the desires of the id in the understanding
that this will eventually benefit the person (not others). Feeling hungry will not
initiate an immediate, desperate search for any food available – a person might
take the time to plan and prepare a tasty meal instead. Fantasizing about a huge
glass of cold water when thirsty and far from a water supply might temporarily
alleviate the id’s need for instant gratification. Waiting to find a long-term (and
potentially beneficial) partner could help to repress the libido.
 Superego examples all involve our sense of right and wrong. I do not steal because
this is one of the Ten Commandments; I do not eat meat because I believe it is
wrong to kill animals; I want to post a picture of myself and my friends on
Facebook but I know that one of my friends does not want me too, so I won’t.

15. These defense mechanisms include:
 Repression: The ego pushes disturbing or threatening thoughts out of one’s
consciousness;
 Denial: The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from awareness,
causing the individual to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is happening;
 Projection: The ego attempts to solve discomfort by attributing the individual’s
unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person;
 Displacement: The individual satisfies an impulse by acting on a substitute object or
person in a socially unacceptable way (e.g., releasing frustration directed toward your
boss on your spouse instead);
 Regression: As a defense mechanism, the individual moves backward in development
in order to cope with stress (e.g., an overwhelmed adult acting like a child);
 Sublimation: Similar to displacement, this defense mechanism involves satisfying an
impulse by acting on a substitute but in a socially acceptable way (e.g., channeling
energy into work or a constructive hobby) (McLeod, 2013).

16.  These theories of personality emphasizes the importance of environment or
situational determinants of behavior. Behavior is shaped by environmental
conditions through learning. In turn, a person’s behavior shapes the environment.
 The basic tenet of the social learning theory is that people behave in ways that are
likely to produce reinforcement and that individual differences in behavior result
primarily from differences in the kinds of learning experiences a person
encounters as he/she grows up (Atkinson, et al., 2000)

17. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical
conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic
learning. This learning process creates a conditioned
response through associations between an unconditioned
stimulus and a neutral stimulus.

19. Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist
B.F. Skinner. His theory was based on two assumptions.
First, the cause of human behavior is something in a
person’s environment. Second, the consequences of a
behavior determine the possibility of it being repeated.
Behavior that is followed by a pleasant consequence is
likely to be repeated and behavior followed by an
unpleasant consequence is less likely to be repeated.
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as
instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that
uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.
Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded
is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished will
rarely occur.

20.  Skinner used a hungry rat in a Skinner box to show how positive
reinforcement works. The box contained a lever on the side, and as
the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever.
Immediately after it did so a food pellet would drop into a container
next to the lever. The consequence of receiving food every time the
rat hit the lever ensured that the animal repeated the action again
and again.

21. Humanistic theories of personality adopt the holistic
(comprehension of the parts) approach wherein the
condition of human being is viewed in its totality, taking
into account their physical, social and psychological
components.
The hierarchy of needs is one of the key concepts advanced
by Abraham Maslow. These needs are unchanging and
genetic in origin.

22. -to satisfy hunger, thirst and sex drives
-to feel secure and out of danger
-belongingness and acceptance
-gain approval and recognition

23. The Extended Hierarchy Of Needs
The original version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model
had 5 needs, namely, physiological needs, safety needs,
belongingness needs, esteem needs and self-actualization
needs. Later, Maslow included some extra needs in his
model. He added cognitive needs, aesthetic needs and the
need for transcendence.
Cognitive needs include the need for knowledge and
curiosity.
Aesthetic needs include the need to look for beauty and
appreciation.
Transcendence needs include the need for meaning beyond
self.

24.  This theory focuses on “information processing and view each
individual as an information processor” (Vander Zanden, 1997).
 This theory deals with the cognitive structures and processes that
allow a person to mentally represent events that transpire in his/her
environment.
 According to Jean Piaget the key concepts this cognitive
development of a child has four stages: the sensory motor stage, the
preoperational stage , the concrete operational stage and the formal
operational stage.

25. This is the level of human development where an
individual experiences the world only through his
senses. A child becomes aware of the presence and
absence of things.
This is the level where an individual uses language
and other symbols. A child is not yet capable of
logical (problem solving) type of thought. He/She
also demonstrates animism; to think that non-
living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings
like a person’s.

26. This is the third level of human development
where an individual first perceives a connection to
his/her environment. A child focuses on how or why
things happen and become less egocentric and
begin to think about how other people might think
and feel.
This is the last level of human development where
an individual thinks abstractly and critically
(capacity for higher-order reasoning). Adolescents
can deal with hypothetical problems with many
possible solutions

28. This theory focuses on the personality of an individual in
selecting potential mate. (Burger, 2001). Parental
investment is the concern when choosing a partner since
both sexes have different ideas with regards to this
matter.
This theory proposes intrasexual selection, which is the
competition among members of the same gender for
mating access to the best members of the opposite gender.
(Burger, 2001)
Researchers on this theory show that men are more likely
to consider younger and physically attractive partner.
While most women prefer a partner who has resources to
raise a family.

29. This theory emphasizes behavior as an adapted traits
(biological point of view). The theory relies heavily on
Charles’s Darwin’s evolutionary theory.
Individual are said to be genetically prepared for some
responses in particular situations.

30.  https://www.simplypsychology.org/personality-theories.html
 https://biologydictionary.net/psychoanalytic-theory/
 https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-operant-conditioning
 https://www.communicationtheory.org/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/
 https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html