The document discusses the aliquot method for weighing and measuring solids and liquids when the desired quantity is below the measurement device's limits. It involves weighing a known quantity of the material and diluting it with an inert substance to obtain the desired amount. Examples are provided for weighing specific amounts of various drugs using this method. Calculations for adjusting doses based on factors like age, weight, and surface area are also described.
This document discusses various methods for calculating drug doses, including definitions of dose-related terms and factors considered in dose determination such as age, weight, body surface area, organ function, and condition being treated. Equations are provided for calculating the size of a dose, number of doses, or total quantity based on one given value. Examples demonstrate dose calculations for specific patients based on weight, body surface area, and dosing tables. Nomograms are also described as a tool for determining body surface area.
The document discusses different methods of expressing concentration in pharmaceutical preparations, including percentage weight-in-volume (w/v), percentage volume-in-volume (v/v), and percentage weight-in-weight (w/w). It provides examples of calculations for each method, and explains that percentage is a ratio expressing parts per hundred. The pharmacist uses percentages frequently to quantify the concentration of active and inactive ingredients.
This document provides a review of mathematical concepts for pharmaceutical calculations, including:
1) Fractions, decimals, percentages, ratios, proportions
2) Converting between fractions, decimals, and percentages
3) Calculations for dilution, concentration, reducing/enlarging formulas, and percentage preparations
It also provides example problems and study questions related to pharmaceutical calculations.
This document discusses sulfonamides, which were the first effective chemotherapeutic agents used to treat bacterial infections. Sulfonamides work by inhibiting the bacterial synthesis of folic acid, which is essential for bacterial growth. They do this by competing with para-amino benzoic acid (PABA) for the folic acid synthetase enzyme. Common side effects include bone marrow suppression, allergic reactions, and crystalluria. Sulfonamides are often used in combination with other drugs to treat infections like typhoid, UTIs, and meningococcal meningitis.
Oral hypoglycemic drugs are used only in the treatment of type 2 diabetes which is a disorder involving resistance to secreted insulin. Type 1 diabetes involves a lack of insulin and requires insulin for treatment. There are now four classes of hypoglycemic drugs:
This document discusses various methods for calculating drug doses, including definitions of dose-related terms and factors considered in dose determination such as age, weight, body surface area, organ function, and condition being treated. Equations are provided for calculating the size of a dose, number of doses, or total quantity based on one given value. Examples demonstrate dose calculations for specific patients based on weight, body surface area, and dosing tables. Nomograms are also described as a tool for determining body surface area.
The document discusses different methods of expressing concentration in pharmaceutical preparations, including percentage weight-in-volume (w/v), percentage volume-in-volume (v/v), and percentage weight-in-weight (w/w). It provides examples of calculations for each method, and explains that percentage is a ratio expressing parts per hundred. The pharmacist uses percentages frequently to quantify the concentration of active and inactive ingredients.
This document provides a review of mathematical concepts for pharmaceutical calculations, including:
1) Fractions, decimals, percentages, ratios, proportions
2) Converting between fractions, decimals, and percentages
3) Calculations for dilution, concentration, reducing/enlarging formulas, and percentage preparations
It also provides example problems and study questions related to pharmaceutical calculations.
This document discusses sulfonamides, which were the first effective chemotherapeutic agents used to treat bacterial infections. Sulfonamides work by inhibiting the bacterial synthesis of folic acid, which is essential for bacterial growth. They do this by competing with para-amino benzoic acid (PABA) for the folic acid synthetase enzyme. Common side effects include bone marrow suppression, allergic reactions, and crystalluria. Sulfonamides are often used in combination with other drugs to treat infections like typhoid, UTIs, and meningococcal meningitis.
Oral hypoglycemic drugs are used only in the treatment of type 2 diabetes which is a disorder involving resistance to secreted insulin. Type 1 diabetes involves a lack of insulin and requires insulin for treatment. There are now four classes of hypoglycemic drugs:
These are antibiotics having a macrocyclic
lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin
is the first member discovered in the 1950s,
Roxithromycin, Clarithromycin and Azithromycin
are the later additions. Antimicrobial spectrum is narrow,
includes mostly gram-positive and a few gramnegative
bacteria, and overlaps considerably with
that of penicillin G. Erythromycin is highly active
against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae and
Listeria, but penicillin-resistant Staphylococci
and Streptococci are now resistant to erythromycin
also.
All cocci readily develop resistance
to erythromycin, mostly by acquiring the
capacity to pump it out. Resistant Enterobacteriaceae
have been found to produce an erythromycin
esterase. Alteration in the ribosomal binding
site for erythromycin by a plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an important mechanism of
resistance in gram-positive bacteria. All the above
types of resistance are plasmid mediated. Change
in the 50S ribosome by chromosomal mutation
reducing macrolide binding a
This document discusses anti-leprotic drugs used to treat leprosy, which is caused by Mycobacterium leprae. It outlines the classification, mechanisms of action, adverse effects, and resistance issues of main drugs used including dapsone, clofazimine, rifampin, ofloxacin and minocycline. It also describes multidrug therapy regimens introduced by WHO using combinations of these drugs to shorten treatment duration and prevent resistance. Alternative regimens are discussed for cases of rifampin resistance. Reactions during leprosy treatment like lepra reaction are also summarized.
This document discusses various factors that can modify drug action, including genetic and non-genetic factors. Body size, age, sex, species, race, and genetics can impact drug pharmacokinetics and dosing requirements. Route of administration, environmental factors, psychological states, concurrent diseases, and drug interactions can also influence drug effects both quantitatively and qualitatively. Tolerance can develop with repeated drug use due to changes in disposition or receptor sensitivity. These modifying factors are important to consider for safe and effective use of medications.
Sulfonamides are antimicrobial agents containing a sulfonamide group. Domagk discovered their efficacy in 1938 by inhibiting the growth of streptococci with prontosil. Sulfonamides work by competing with para-aminobenzoic acid to inhibit dihydrofolic acid synthesis. They are classified based on duration of action and are used to treat various bacterial, protozoal, and chlamydial infections. Common adverse effects include gastrointestinal issues, hematological toxicity, hypersensitivity, and renal toxicity. Trimethoprim is a diaminopyrimidine that also inhibits dihydrofolic acid synthesis and has synergistic effects when combined with sulfonamides in co-tri
This document discusses antimalarial drugs. It describes that malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites and transmitted by mosquitoes. It outlines the different Plasmodium species and classes of antimalarial drugs, including mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, uses, and adverse effects. Key drugs discussed include chloroquine, mefloquine, quinine, proguanil, pyrimethamine, sulfonamide-pyrimethamine, primaquine, tetracyclines, clindamycin, and artemisinin derivatives.
Pharmaceutical Calculations Lecture 1 introduces key concepts in pharmaceutical calculations including:
- Symbols and their meanings commonly used in pharmaceutical calculations.
- Converting between common fractions, decimal fractions, percentages, and exponential notation.
- Calculating ratios, proportions, and using dimensional analysis to solve pharmaceutical calculation problems.
- Estimating answers to check the reasonableness of calculation results.
The document discusses pancreatic hormones and insulin. It describes the four main cell types in the islets of Langerhans and the hormones they secrete, including insulin secreted by beta cells. Insulin was discovered in 1921 and contains two polypeptide chains connected by disulfide bonds. Insulin regulates glucose levels by facilitating glucose transport and storage and inhibiting gluconeogenesis. Various insulin preparations are discussed, from conventional insulin to highly purified pork insulin to human insulin produced through recombinant DNA technology to analogues like insulin lispro and glargine which have altered pharmacokinetic properties.
This document discusses different classes of hypoglycemic agents used to treat type 2 diabetes. It describes 5 classes: sulfonyl ureas, biguanides, thiazolidinediones, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, and meglitinides/phenylalanine analogues. Sulfonyl ureas work by stimulating insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells. Biguanides like metformin increase insulin sensitivity. Thiazolidinediones are insulin sensitizers that enhance insulin action in target tissues like liver and muscle. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors prevent glucose absorption from the gut. Meglitinides stimulate acute insulin release. The document provides examples of drugs in each class and briefly summarizes their mechanisms of action and
Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that was initially obtained from Streptomyces bacteria but is now produced synthetically. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding reversibly to the 50S ribosomal subunit. It is primarily bacteriostatic but can be bactericidal at high concentrations. Common adverse effects include bone marrow suppression, hypersensitivity reactions, and gray baby syndrome in neonates. It is used to treat typhoid fever, meningococcal infections, and anaerobic infections when other antibiotics cannot be used.
This document provides an overview of antibiotics, including their historical background, classification, mechanisms of action, and examples. It focuses on penicillins and their discovery by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Penicillins are beta-lactam antibiotics that work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis. They have broad applications for treating bacterial infections. The document also discusses cephalosporins, another class of beta-lactam antibiotics derived from the fungus Cephalosporium.
This document discusses sulfonamides, including their history, mechanisms of action, classifications, uses, and adverse effects. It specifically focuses on cotrimoxazole and sulfadoxine + pyrimethamine combinations. Cotrimoxazole is a fixed dose combination of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim that is bactericidal and has a wide spectrum of action. It is used for urinary tract, respiratory, and intestinal infections. Sulfadoxine + pyrimethamine is also a fixed dose combination that acts synergistically through sequential blockade of protozoal folic acid synthesis, making it effective against chloroquine resistant malaria and toxoplasmosis. Both combinations can cause hypersensitivity reactions and
The document classifies antitubercular drugs into first line, second line, and newer drugs. It provides details on the mechanisms of action, properties, uses and resistance mechanisms of major first line drugs including isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, pyrazinamide, and streptomycin. It also briefly discusses some second line drugs like para-aminosalicylic acid, ethionamide, cycloserine, capreomycin, and kanamycin.
Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics that are produced by soil bacteria. They are primarily used to treat infections caused by aerobic gram-negative bacteria and some are used for mycobacterial infections. Aminoglycosides work by binding to bacterial ribosomes which interferes with protein synthesis. They have concentration-dependent bactericidal activity against many gram-negative organisms but limited activity against gram-positive bacteria. Common adverse effects include ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Therapeutic drug monitoring is important when using aminoglycosides to minimize toxicity risks.
Isoniazid is a first-line medication used in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of mycolic acid. Isoniazid is available in tablet, syrup, and injectable forms. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, peripheral neuropathy, and potentially fatal hepatitis. Precautions must be taken in patients with hepatic or renal impairment. Treatment requires monitoring for side effects and typically lasts 6-9 months to prevent tuberculosis relapse.
Macrolides are a class of antibiotics derived from Saccharopolyspora erythraea (originally called Streptomyces erythreus), a type of soil-borne bacteria.
sulfonamides are the antimicrobial agents.It's act by folic acid synthesis inhibitors.It is PABA analogue competitive antagonist. first synthesised drug is prontosil.
In this slide contents history, mechanism of action, SAR, classification of drugs, some structure of important drugs, choice of drugs in different purpose, side effect, adverse effect.
This presentation is all about information regarding paracetamol drug. This presentation includes introduction of paracetamol, uses of paracetamol, side effects of paracetamol, paracetamol overdose, paracetamol used for children, paracetamol intersections, paracetamol combinations etc. Source of this presentation is www.paracetamol-information.blogspot.in
Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood glucose levels. There are different types of insulin preparations categorized by their onset and duration of action: rapid-acting insulin has an onset of 15 minutes; short-acting insulin has an onset of 30-60 minutes; intermediate-acting insulin has an onset of 1-2 hours; and long-acting insulin has an onset of 2-8 hours. Insulin can also be administered as a combination of short-acting and intermediate/long-acting insulins to better control blood glucose throughout the day. Insulin is usually administered via subcutaneous injection in the arm, thigh, or abdomen using a syringe or portable pen device.
This document discusses methods for accurately measuring volumes and weights in a pharmacy setting. It describes common instruments used to measure volumes, such as graduates and syringes. It also discusses factors that influence measurement accuracy, such as the capacity and bore of the instrument. For weighing, it recommends using a precision balance and provides steps for the aliquot method to precisely weigh small quantities that are below the minimum readable amount on the balance.
The document discusses reducing and enlarging formulas for pharmaceutical preparations. It provides examples of calculating the quantities of ingredients needed when the amount prepared is different than the original formula. The key steps are to determine the factor by which the original amount is being reduced or enlarged, then multiply each ingredient by this factor. This allows all ingredient proportions to be maintained accurately in the new amount prepared. Formulas specifying ingredients in proportional parts rather than weights are also addressed.
These are antibiotics having a macrocyclic
lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin
is the first member discovered in the 1950s,
Roxithromycin, Clarithromycin and Azithromycin
are the later additions. Antimicrobial spectrum is narrow,
includes mostly gram-positive and a few gramnegative
bacteria, and overlaps considerably with
that of penicillin G. Erythromycin is highly active
against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae and
Listeria, but penicillin-resistant Staphylococci
and Streptococci are now resistant to erythromycin
also.
All cocci readily develop resistance
to erythromycin, mostly by acquiring the
capacity to pump it out. Resistant Enterobacteriaceae
have been found to produce an erythromycin
esterase. Alteration in the ribosomal binding
site for erythromycin by a plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an important mechanism of
resistance in gram-positive bacteria. All the above
types of resistance are plasmid mediated. Change
in the 50S ribosome by chromosomal mutation
reducing macrolide binding a
This document discusses anti-leprotic drugs used to treat leprosy, which is caused by Mycobacterium leprae. It outlines the classification, mechanisms of action, adverse effects, and resistance issues of main drugs used including dapsone, clofazimine, rifampin, ofloxacin and minocycline. It also describes multidrug therapy regimens introduced by WHO using combinations of these drugs to shorten treatment duration and prevent resistance. Alternative regimens are discussed for cases of rifampin resistance. Reactions during leprosy treatment like lepra reaction are also summarized.
This document discusses various factors that can modify drug action, including genetic and non-genetic factors. Body size, age, sex, species, race, and genetics can impact drug pharmacokinetics and dosing requirements. Route of administration, environmental factors, psychological states, concurrent diseases, and drug interactions can also influence drug effects both quantitatively and qualitatively. Tolerance can develop with repeated drug use due to changes in disposition or receptor sensitivity. These modifying factors are important to consider for safe and effective use of medications.
Sulfonamides are antimicrobial agents containing a sulfonamide group. Domagk discovered their efficacy in 1938 by inhibiting the growth of streptococci with prontosil. Sulfonamides work by competing with para-aminobenzoic acid to inhibit dihydrofolic acid synthesis. They are classified based on duration of action and are used to treat various bacterial, protozoal, and chlamydial infections. Common adverse effects include gastrointestinal issues, hematological toxicity, hypersensitivity, and renal toxicity. Trimethoprim is a diaminopyrimidine that also inhibits dihydrofolic acid synthesis and has synergistic effects when combined with sulfonamides in co-tri
This document discusses antimalarial drugs. It describes that malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites and transmitted by mosquitoes. It outlines the different Plasmodium species and classes of antimalarial drugs, including mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, uses, and adverse effects. Key drugs discussed include chloroquine, mefloquine, quinine, proguanil, pyrimethamine, sulfonamide-pyrimethamine, primaquine, tetracyclines, clindamycin, and artemisinin derivatives.
Pharmaceutical Calculations Lecture 1 introduces key concepts in pharmaceutical calculations including:
- Symbols and their meanings commonly used in pharmaceutical calculations.
- Converting between common fractions, decimal fractions, percentages, and exponential notation.
- Calculating ratios, proportions, and using dimensional analysis to solve pharmaceutical calculation problems.
- Estimating answers to check the reasonableness of calculation results.
The document discusses pancreatic hormones and insulin. It describes the four main cell types in the islets of Langerhans and the hormones they secrete, including insulin secreted by beta cells. Insulin was discovered in 1921 and contains two polypeptide chains connected by disulfide bonds. Insulin regulates glucose levels by facilitating glucose transport and storage and inhibiting gluconeogenesis. Various insulin preparations are discussed, from conventional insulin to highly purified pork insulin to human insulin produced through recombinant DNA technology to analogues like insulin lispro and glargine which have altered pharmacokinetic properties.
This document discusses different classes of hypoglycemic agents used to treat type 2 diabetes. It describes 5 classes: sulfonyl ureas, biguanides, thiazolidinediones, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, and meglitinides/phenylalanine analogues. Sulfonyl ureas work by stimulating insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells. Biguanides like metformin increase insulin sensitivity. Thiazolidinediones are insulin sensitizers that enhance insulin action in target tissues like liver and muscle. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors prevent glucose absorption from the gut. Meglitinides stimulate acute insulin release. The document provides examples of drugs in each class and briefly summarizes their mechanisms of action and
Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that was initially obtained from Streptomyces bacteria but is now produced synthetically. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding reversibly to the 50S ribosomal subunit. It is primarily bacteriostatic but can be bactericidal at high concentrations. Common adverse effects include bone marrow suppression, hypersensitivity reactions, and gray baby syndrome in neonates. It is used to treat typhoid fever, meningococcal infections, and anaerobic infections when other antibiotics cannot be used.
This document provides an overview of antibiotics, including their historical background, classification, mechanisms of action, and examples. It focuses on penicillins and their discovery by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Penicillins are beta-lactam antibiotics that work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis. They have broad applications for treating bacterial infections. The document also discusses cephalosporins, another class of beta-lactam antibiotics derived from the fungus Cephalosporium.
This document discusses sulfonamides, including their history, mechanisms of action, classifications, uses, and adverse effects. It specifically focuses on cotrimoxazole and sulfadoxine + pyrimethamine combinations. Cotrimoxazole is a fixed dose combination of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim that is bactericidal and has a wide spectrum of action. It is used for urinary tract, respiratory, and intestinal infections. Sulfadoxine + pyrimethamine is also a fixed dose combination that acts synergistically through sequential blockade of protozoal folic acid synthesis, making it effective against chloroquine resistant malaria and toxoplasmosis. Both combinations can cause hypersensitivity reactions and
The document classifies antitubercular drugs into first line, second line, and newer drugs. It provides details on the mechanisms of action, properties, uses and resistance mechanisms of major first line drugs including isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, pyrazinamide, and streptomycin. It also briefly discusses some second line drugs like para-aminosalicylic acid, ethionamide, cycloserine, capreomycin, and kanamycin.
Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics that are produced by soil bacteria. They are primarily used to treat infections caused by aerobic gram-negative bacteria and some are used for mycobacterial infections. Aminoglycosides work by binding to bacterial ribosomes which interferes with protein synthesis. They have concentration-dependent bactericidal activity against many gram-negative organisms but limited activity against gram-positive bacteria. Common adverse effects include ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Therapeutic drug monitoring is important when using aminoglycosides to minimize toxicity risks.
Isoniazid is a first-line medication used in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of mycolic acid. Isoniazid is available in tablet, syrup, and injectable forms. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, peripheral neuropathy, and potentially fatal hepatitis. Precautions must be taken in patients with hepatic or renal impairment. Treatment requires monitoring for side effects and typically lasts 6-9 months to prevent tuberculosis relapse.
Macrolides are a class of antibiotics derived from Saccharopolyspora erythraea (originally called Streptomyces erythreus), a type of soil-borne bacteria.
sulfonamides are the antimicrobial agents.It's act by folic acid synthesis inhibitors.It is PABA analogue competitive antagonist. first synthesised drug is prontosil.
In this slide contents history, mechanism of action, SAR, classification of drugs, some structure of important drugs, choice of drugs in different purpose, side effect, adverse effect.
This presentation is all about information regarding paracetamol drug. This presentation includes introduction of paracetamol, uses of paracetamol, side effects of paracetamol, paracetamol overdose, paracetamol used for children, paracetamol intersections, paracetamol combinations etc. Source of this presentation is www.paracetamol-information.blogspot.in
Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood glucose levels. There are different types of insulin preparations categorized by their onset and duration of action: rapid-acting insulin has an onset of 15 minutes; short-acting insulin has an onset of 30-60 minutes; intermediate-acting insulin has an onset of 1-2 hours; and long-acting insulin has an onset of 2-8 hours. Insulin can also be administered as a combination of short-acting and intermediate/long-acting insulins to better control blood glucose throughout the day. Insulin is usually administered via subcutaneous injection in the arm, thigh, or abdomen using a syringe or portable pen device.
This document discusses methods for accurately measuring volumes and weights in a pharmacy setting. It describes common instruments used to measure volumes, such as graduates and syringes. It also discusses factors that influence measurement accuracy, such as the capacity and bore of the instrument. For weighing, it recommends using a precision balance and provides steps for the aliquot method to precisely weigh small quantities that are below the minimum readable amount on the balance.
The document discusses reducing and enlarging formulas for pharmaceutical preparations. It provides examples of calculating the quantities of ingredients needed when the amount prepared is different than the original formula. The key steps are to determine the factor by which the original amount is being reduced or enlarged, then multiply each ingredient by this factor. This allows all ingredient proportions to be maintained accurately in the new amount prepared. Formulas specifying ingredients in proportional parts rather than weights are also addressed.
1. Noradrenaline is administered by continuous intravenous infusion to treat hypotension.
2. The initial infusion rate for a 70kg patient is 10-20 ml/hour, equivalent to 0.4-0.8 mg/hour of noradrenaline base.
3. The dose is then titrated in steps of 0.05-0.1 μg/kg/min according to blood pressure, with the aim of achieving a systolic BP of 100-120 mmHg.
The document discusses important considerations for calculating drug dosages, including dose amount, dosage regimen, and factors that influence dosing schedules such as half-life, volume of distribution, clearance, and special conditions like renal failure or pediatric patients. It also provides examples of calculating loading and maintenance doses, intravenous fluid rates, and dosages for specific drugs and patient populations.
This document provides information and examples on calculating doses of medication. It discusses calculating the number of doses contained in a total amount, calculating the size of each dose, and calculating the total amount of medication needed. It also covers calculating doses for children using various rules, and calculating quantities when formulas specify total amounts or proportional parts. The key steps involve setting up proportions between the total amount, dose size, and number of doses.
This document provides information and formulas for various medical calculations used in pre-hospital settings, including calculations for medication bolus doses, infusion rates, fluid flow rates, and weight-based infusions. It defines common medical abbreviations and covers metric conversions and basic arithmetic. Formulas are provided for intravenous bolus medications, intravenous infusions, weight-based infusions, and intravenous fluid flow rates. Additional "street rules" shortcuts are described for calculating dopamine and lidocaine infusion rates.
Basic Pharmacy Calculations and PharmacokinetesJoy Awoniyi
This was a lecture presented to the Davie campus of Florida A&M University College of Pharmacy P4 students. The lecture was presented during their final semester, at a course geared towards NAPLEX preparation. During the lecture, students wer asked to participate. We worked through each problem together and questions were encouraged.
The document provides an overview of various medical math concepts and formulas for calculating dosages and drip rates. Key topics covered include:
- Converting between measurement systems like metric, apothecary, and Fahrenheit/Celsius
- Calculating dosages using concentration and volume formulas
- Determining drip rates using concentration, dosage, and number of drops per minute
- Weight-based dosage calculations using patient weight in kg and mg/kg formulas
Practice problems are provided for many of these concepts to help users learn and apply the various medical math formulas.
This document discusses the calibration of various glassware used in dairy analysis laboratories. It provides methods for calibrating volumetric glassware like burettes, pipettes, and volumetric flasks using comparison, BIS, and mathematical methods. Milk butyrometers and lactometers are calibrated by comparison to standard instruments or using BIS methods involving mercury or salt solutions. Thermometers are calibrated by comparison, locating zero and boiling points. Freezing point depression thermometers are calibrated using molal solutions that depress freezing points by known amounts. Burettes are checked for accuracy at intervals by measuring delivered volumes.
- The document provides guidance on calculating drug dosages and infusion rates for healthcare professionals.
- It emphasizes the importance of double-checking calculations and converting between different units of measurement to minimize errors.
- Examples are given for calculating oral, intravenous and infusion dosages based on the drug amount available, prescribed dose, and patient weight or volume of solution.
This document provides information on drug dosage calculations including terminology, measurement systems, calculation methods, routes of administration, conversions, and formulas for calculating dosages for tablets, mixtures, IV rates, and fluid therapy. Key terms are defined such as flow rate, dose, concentration, and drop factor. The three main measurement systems of apothecary, household, and metric are described. Dimensional analysis and other methods for calculations are discussed. Common routes of drug administration are also listed.
The document provides tips and information on various medical math concepts including weight and temperature conversions, the apothecary and metric systems, calculating administration doses, weight-based dosing, and drip rate calculations. Examples are provided for each topic to demonstrate how to set up and solve different types of medical math problems nurses commonly encounter. Key formulas and equivalents are highlighted throughout to aid in learning and applying the various calculation methods.
This document discusses various pharmaceutical calculations related to dispensing medications. It covers:
- Systems of weights and measures including avoirdupois, apothecaries, metric, and imperial.
- Calculations involving density, weight, and volume.
- Methods for calculating alcohol dilutions and mixtures to achieve a target concentration.
- Conversions between percentage solutions and proof spirit units used for excise purposes.
The document provides detailed examples and step-by-step workings for various calculation types pharmacists may encounter when dispensing prescriptions.
This document provides information on drug dosage calculations, including definitions of key terms, measurement systems, calculation methods, and formulas for specific calculations like intravenous drip rates and pediatric dosages. It defines terms like dose, concentration, drop factor, and flow rate. It also covers volume and unit conversions between metric, household, and apothecary systems. Methods like dimensional analysis are described for solving dosage problems. Formulas are given for calculating pediatric dosages based on age and body size, intravenous infusion rates in mL/hr or drops/min, and fluid maintenance requirements.
This document summarizes a seminar on bioassay of official drugs. It defines bioassay, describes the principles and importance of bioassay, and outlines common types including heparin sodium, oxytocin, streptokinase, and vitamin D. Limitations of bioassay are also noted. Methods for each drug are provided, including preparation of standards and testing solutions, procedures, and statistical analysis of results.
This document provides information on pediatric medication administration including:
- Converting between pounds and kilograms for calculating doses.
- Formulas for calculating intravenous fluid rates and drip rates based on total volume, time, and drop factor.
- Examples of calculating safe dosage ranges based on weight in kilograms and calculating the number of tablets or volume to administer.
- Using syringe pumps and solusets to administer intravenous medications over a specified time period.
The document emphasizes accurate dosage calculations for pediatric patients and provides multiple examples to demonstrate the calculation methods.
Fundamentals of measurement and calculationAfkar432
This document provides information on various dose calculation methods used by doctors, pharmacists, and nurses. It discusses:
- Fundamental concepts like ratios, proportions, dimensional analysis, and approximation that are useful for calculations.
- Examples of direct proportion dose calculations for drugs like cough syrup.
- The use of inverse proportions for dilution problems.
- Calculating doses based on factors like child weight, adult doses, or constant intravenous infusion rates.
- The aliquot method for precise weighing of small drug amounts when measurement devices lack sufficient sensitivity.
General analytical methods of milk powder finalSkAzizuddin1
This document outlines various analytical methods for dried milk powder, including procedures for determining moisture, fat, acidity, carbohydrates, and detecting adulterants. Moisture is determined by drying a sample to constant weight. Fat is extracted using solvents and weighed. Acidity is measured by titration. Carbohydrates are calculated by subtracting moisture, fat, and other components from 100%. Adulterants can be detected using tests for cane sugar, urea, preservatives, and neutralizers.
Inprocess as per usp ip bp external preparationDeepak Jain
The document discusses various types of topical drug formulations including gels, pastes, lotions, ointments, and creams. It provides details on the characteristics of each type such as consistency, vehicle components, and effects when applied to skin. It also outlines some common quality tests performed on topical formulations to ensure uniformity of content, sterility, and low microbial levels. Tests include uniformity of weight, minimum fill, and microbial quality assessment.
Heart failure is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by impaired ventricular performance and exercise intolerance. The primary goals of treatment are to improve symptoms and decrease mortality. There are three categories of drugs used: positively inotropic drugs which increase cardiac contractility, vasodilators which decrease preload and afterload, and diuretics which reduce fluid retention. Antiarrhythmic drugs are also important for treatment and are classified based on their effects on sodium, potassium, or calcium ion channels.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy and functions of the urinary system. It describes the major components including the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood and produce urine, which travels through the ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until urination, when it is expelled through the urethra. Key structures like the nephrons and vasculature are also summarized.
The document discusses acid-base balance and homeostasis in the human body. It covers three main mechanisms for maintaining pH levels:
1) Buffer systems like carbonic acid-bicarbonate and proteins which temporarily bind excess hydrogen ions.
2) Exhalation of carbon dioxide through breathing, which reduces carbonic acid levels and raises blood pH within minutes.
3) Kidney excretion of hydrogen ions in urine over longer periods, which is needed to eliminate non-volatile acids produced by metabolism. Together these mechanisms tightly regulate pH through feedback loops and keep levels appropriate for cellular functions.
Inflammation is the body's protective response to injury or infection that involves increased blood flow, blood vessel permeability, and immune cell activity in affected tissues. It serves to remove infectious agents and damaged cells, initiating the healing process. Acute inflammation is characterized by redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. The main cellular responses are increased neutrophil and macrophage migration. Acute inflammation is usually beneficial and self-limiting, resolving with removal of the trigger. Prolonged inflammation can lead to fibrosis, abscess, or progression to chronic inflammation if the trigger persists.
The document summarizes xenobiotic metabolism, which involves the breakdown of foreign substances like drugs, food additives, and pollutants in the human body. It notes that metabolism primarily occurs in the liver and involves two phases. Phase 1 involves reactions like hydroxylation that activate compounds. Phase 2 involves conjugation reactions that make compounds more hydrophilic and able to be excreted. Key enzymes involved include the cytochrome P450 system and conjugating enzymes. Genetic polymorphisms can impact an individual's ability to metabolize various compounds.
This document provides an introduction to medical parasitology and defines key terms. It discusses how parasites differ from hosts in size, generation rate, life spans, abundance, and dependence. It classifies parasites based on their anatomical position in the host as intestinal, hemoparasites, or tissue parasites. It also defines definitive and intermediate hosts. Finally, it provides an overview of important protozoan parasites, discussing their locomotion organs and stages of cysts and trophozoites.
Hormones are chemical regulatory factors secreted by endocrine glands or cells that are transported via bloodstream to target tissues containing receptors. They regulate metabolism, growth, homeostasis, behavior, and reproduction. Hormones are classified based on their chemical nature, water solubility, and mechanism of action. Group I hormones are lipophilic and bind intracellular receptors to regulate gene expression. Group II hormones are hydrophilic and bind membrane receptors, activating second messengers like cAMP or calcium to modify cell function. Hormones play an essential role in coordinating physiological processes through receptor-mediated signaling pathways.
The document provides an overview of human anatomy. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures and their relationships. There are two main types of anatomy - gross anatomy which studies large observable structures, and microscopic anatomy which studies structures too small to see with the naked eye. The human body is organized into different structural levels from chemical to cellular to tissues to organs to systems. Key anatomical planes, directions, and regions are also defined to describe body structures in a standardized way.
This document discusses membrane physiology, including transport across cell membranes and membrane potentials. It notes that transport across membranes can occur passively through diffusion or actively through pumps that require ATP. The sodium-potassium pump is described as actively transporting sodium out of and potassium into cells. Resting membrane potential and action potentials are also summarized. Action potentials occur when the membrane reaches threshold and there is a rapid influx of sodium followed by repolarization.
The document summarizes the physiology of the respiratory system. It discusses:
1) The mechanism of breathing including inspiration through contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, and expiration which is usually passive.
2) Gas exchange which occurs through diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane in the lungs, with oxygen diffusing into blood and carbon dioxide diffusing out.
3) Transport of oxygen which is carried in both dissolved and chemically bound forms in blood, with deoxygenated blood releasing carbon dioxide as it passes through the pulmonary circulation to be exhaled.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
3. • If the quantity needed is greater the balance’s
capacity, the material may be weighed in
portions.
• For example, if 160gm of an ointment is to be
measured on the class A prescription balance
(which has an upper limit of 120gm)
–80gm of the ointment can be weighed twice
–40gm of the ointment can be weighed four
times
4. • Generally the potential error should be 5% or
less
• When the desired quantity of ingredients is
below the lower limits of class A prescription
balance the aliquot methods of weighing is
preferred
• An aliquot is a whole number part of a given
quantity
• For example,
– Five is an aliquot of ten, to be more specific, five is the
second aliquot of ten, two is the fifth aliquot of ten
5. • The minimum weighable amount (least
weighable quantity or LWQ) of that compound
is weighed and mixed with a certain quantity
of an inert material to obtain a stock mixture
6. • After thoroughly mixing the drug and the inert
material by employing the technique of
geometrical dilution.
• Weigh an aliquot of the stock mixture which
provides the desired quantity of the material
• Geometric dilution or mixing technique is
useful for uniformly mixing ingredients of
unequal amount
• For example: mixing of 2gm of Asprin with
14gm of lactose
7. • Mixing should be performed by geometric
dilution:
–Mix 2gm of aspirin with approximately 2gm
of lactose
–To this 4gm of mixture add 4gm of lactose
and mix thoroughly
–To this 8gm of mixture add the remaining
8gm of lactose and mix thoroughly
8. Examples of aliquot method of
weighing
Example 1: if it is desired to weigh 60mg of
salicylic acid on a class A prescription
balance with sensitivity requirement of 6
mg, and potential error of not more than
5%, explain how you would perform the
weighing.
9. a. Figure out the LWQ on the given balance
The LWQ of salicylic acid on the class A
prescription balance
5%=6mg*100/LWQ
LWQ=600/5=120mg
b. Weigh 120mg of salicylic acid. Some multiple
of this quantity can also be weighed but to
avoid the waste. LWQ approach is preferred
10. c. Weigh a suitable amount of lactose or some
other compatible inert material. The amount
should be equal to or in some multiple of the
LWQ. In this example, an amount of 120mg
lactose is chosen. Therefore, weigh this
amount.
11. d. Mix the salicylic acid and lactose thoroughly.
The total mixture now is 240mg. From this
mixture, weigh an aliquot which provides
60mg of the salicylic acid
By method proportion
120mg of SA/240mg of the mix= 60mg
of SA/Xmg of the mix
X=240*60/120=120mg of the mixture
• Instead of weighing 60mg of salicylic acid
directly, 120mg of the mixture of salicylic acid
and lactose should be weighed
12. Example two: explain how you would weigh gr
ss of atropine sulfate on a prescription balance
with a sensitivity requirement of 10mg
Hint: 1gr=64.8mg
13. Example 3: show how would you weigh 20mg of
menthol on a class A prescription balance.
14. Liquid measurements
• Parallax error is one of the main source of
error in liquid measurements.
• The liquid surface in a container is not even,
and a ‘’miniscus’’ is formed. For most liquids
the surface is concave.
• The uneven surface is due to surface tension,
and if not read properly, may result in an error
commonly known as parallax error
15.
16. Aliquot method for liquids
• Measurement of volumes less than that of the
lower limitations of the measuring device
requires an aliquot approach.
Example 1: how would you measure 0.025ml of
a concentrate which is to be diluted to 60ml
following the measurement? You are provided
with a 5ml pippet with making in units of 1ml,
a measuring cylinder, and a container to
dispense the final product.
17. Example 2:
FD & C dye………………………….0.25mg
Puried water qs. Ad…………………..90ml
0.5% W/V OF FD &C dye stock solution is
provided explain how you would make this
product.
18. Procedure:
a. Calibrate the final container 90ml. Determine
the amount of stock solution which contains
0.25mg of the dye
X=0.05ml
500mg of the dye
100ml of the stock
solution
=
0.25mg of the dye
X ml of stock
solution
19. b. One can either measure the 0.05ml by a
medicinal dropper after calibrating it
• Or, the stock solution can be diluted such that
the diluted stock solution would provide a
measurable quantity containing 0.25mg of the
dye.
• For dilution, measure one ml of the stock
solution and add a sufficient quantity of
purified water to obtain 100ml of diluted stock
solution.
C1V1=C2V2
20. c. Figure out the amount of diluted solution
which provide the required 0.25mg of the dye
X=5 ml
Measure 5ml of the diluted stock solution which
contains the required 0.25mg of the drug
=
5mg of the dye
100ml dil stock
soln
0.25mg of the dye
X ml dil stock
soln
21. d. Transfer 5ml of the diluted stock solution or
0.05ml of the original stock solution to the
final container and add a sufficient quantity of
water to fill up to the calibrated 90ml mark
23. Procedure:
a. Calibrate the final container to 60ml. Since
0.03 is not weighable on class A prescription
balance, the aliquot method is required. Weigh
120mg of gentian violet using the balance.
24. b. Make a stock solution such that an aliquot of
stock solution will provide 0.03g of gentian
violet. Dissolve 0.12g of gentian violet in
purified water to make 20ml (this number is
arbitrarily chosen ) of the stock solution.
c. From the stock solution, measure an aliquot
that contains 0.03g of the gentian violet
0.03g of gentian violet
X ml of the stock soln
0.12g of gentian violet
20ml of the stock
solution
=
25. d. Transfer 5 ml of the stock solution into the
final container, and add a sufficient quantity of
purified water to make up to the calibrated
mark of 60ml
26. Practical problems
• How would you prepare the following
prescription? Show stepwise procedure and all
the calculations involved.
Rx
Propranolol HCL……………………2mg
D5w solution qs……………………..fƷ iv
27. • How do you obtain 10mg of codeine using a
prescription balance with sensitivity
requirement of 5mg? The potential error
should no be greater than 8%
28. How you would prepare the following
prescription?
Rx
L.C.D…………………………………0.005ml
Water qs ad………………………………50ml
29. • Explain how would you weigh gr iss of
pseudoephedrine on a prescription balance
with sensitivity requirement of 6mg and
potential error of 2% or less
30. • If a pharmacist needs 0.6ml of a drug and has a
10ml graduated cylinder with markings from 2
to 10ml in units of 1ml, explain how you
would obtain the required quantity of 0.6ml.
Use water as a diluent.
31. • If 0.75ml of a drug is needed and a pharmacist
has a 10ml graduated cylinder with markings
from 1 to 10ml in units of 1ml, explain how
the required quantity of 0.75ml can be
measured. Use water as diluent.
32. • Explain how to weigh one grain of
acetaminophen on a prescription balance
having sensitivity requirement of ¼ grain.
33. • A prescription requires 0.015ml of a drug
concentrate. Using a pipet with markings from
one to ten in units of 1ml and a 100ml
graduated cylinder, explain how you would
obtain the required quantity of drug
concentrate? Use water as diluent.
34. • Explain how one can obtain 2 minims of a
liquid concentrate using a 5ml pipet with
graduations from 1-5ml in units of 0.5ml, and
100ml measuring cylinder. Use water as a
diluent.
35. Practical problems
• Explain how to weigh 30mg of codeine with
an error not greater than 5%, using lactose as a
diluent. The balance has a sensitivity
requirement of 6mg. You only have 1gm
lactose left in stock.
36. • A prescription calls for 50mg of
chlorpheniramine maleate. Using a balance
with sensitivity requirement of 6mg, explain
how you would obtain the amount required of
chlopheniramine maleate with an error not
greater than 5%
37. • Explain how to weigh 20mg of drug with an
error less than 2.5% using lactose as diluent.
The balance has a sensitivity requirement of
6mg.
39. Calculations Of Doses
• There are many drugs for which there are no
standard doses, and for these drugs calculation
of the dose required is dependent on a patient
characteristic, such as body weight or surface
area.
40. • Example 1: what dose of salbutamol would
you recommend for a 10 year old child, weight
30kg, when the recommended dosage is
100mcg/kg?
41. • Example 2: what dose of vincristine is required
for a 92kg patient with a body surface area
(BSA) of 2.0m2 and a recommended dosage
of 1.4mg/m2 ?
42. • In some instances it is more appropriate to use
the patient’s ideal body weight (IBW)
• Calculation of IBW is necessary for adult
patients whose body weight is more than either
30% above or below the average adult weight
of 70kg (i.e. for obese or emaciated patients)
43. • Ideal body weight (kg) is calculated from the
patient’s height (H, expressed in centimetres)
using the following equation:
–Males IBW=(0.9x H)-88
–Females IBW=(0.9x H)-92
44. • BSA=?
Example 3: the dosage of chemotherapeutic
agent cyclophosphamide can be expressed in
mg/m2 in some regimens and in mg/kg in
other regimens. If the doses required are either
60mg/kg or 800mg/m2 for a male adult patient
who weighs 100kg and measures 1.8 metres,
give the three alternative doses to be
administered based on ABW, IBW, and BSA.
45. Drug dosage based on age
• Age of a patient is one of the most important
considerations for drug dosage modification
• Some of the important pharmacokinetic
parameters change with age.
• In general, the drug elimination which is
comprised of drug metabolism and excretion is
less functional in newborns
• Improves with age as they grow into healthy
adult individuals
46. • As they grow further to an age of 65 or above,
the elimination declines
• It is important to remember that age is not the
only valid criterion for dose modifications.
• Young’s equation: preferably from 1 to 12
years of age
Dose of child=(age of child in years)/(age in
child years + 12)*adult dose
47. • Cowling’s equation:
Dose of child=age of child in years at
next birthday/24*adult dose
• Fried’s equation: preferably from birth to one
year of age
Approx. child dose=age in months/150*adults
dose
48. • Example 1:an adult dose of drug is 500mg,
what is the dose for a 2 year old child?
• According to young’s formula
Dose of child=(age of child in years)/(age of
child in years + 12)*adult dose
=2/14*500mg
=71.42mg of drug
51. • The patient is a child and would be four years
old on the following birthday.
• Therefore cowling’s equation will be used
• Cowling’s equation:
Dose of child=age of child in years
at next birthday/24*adult dose
• 4/24*200=33.33mg
• 4/24*400=66.66mg
52. Enlarging And Reducing
Formulas
• When a pharmaceutical product is to be
prepared extemporaneously, a reference
formula is usually required.
• These formulae can be found in the
pharmaceutical reference sources such as:
– British pharmacopia
– United state pharmacopia
– Indian pharmacopia etc.
53. • Frequently, the weight or volume of the
preparation given in the reference formula will
not be the same as that which must be
prepared, in which case the quantities of each
ingredient must be increased or reduced.
54. • Example 1: you are asked to prepare 300ml of
single chloroform water. The formula is given
below:
Concentrated chloroform water……………25ml
Purified water..………………………..to 1000ml
55. • Example 2: You are asked to prepare 5000g
zinc cream BP. The formula is given is below:
Zinc oxide---------------------------------------320g
Calcium hydroxide----------------------------0.45g
Oleic acid----------------------------------------5ml
Arachis oil--------------------------------------320ml
Wool fat -----------------------------------------80g
Purified water to produce-------------------1000g
56. • You are required to dispense 50g of hydrous
ointment BP. The formula is given below:
Wool alcohols ointment……………………500g
Phenoxyethanol……………………………10g
Dried magnesium sulphate…………….…..5g
Purified water……………………………485g
57. Formulae in part or percentage
• This type of formula is usually written by a
prescriber requesting special ointments or creams.
• Example 1: prepare 30g of the following ointment
Hydrocortisone ointment…………………..…..25%
White soft paraffin……………………………..50%
Liquid paraffin……………...………………….25%
58. • Example 2: prepare 400g of the following
cream
Betamethasone cream……………………1part
Aqueous cream………………….……….3parts
59. Practical problems
Acid gentian mixture BP
Conc. Compound gentian infusion….…100ml
Diluted hydrochloric acid……………….50ml
Double strength chloroform water….…500ml
Water to ……………………………...1000ml
Send:250ml
70. Percentage
• The word percent means hundredths of a whole and is
represented by the symbol
• The word percentage indicates ‘’ rate per hundred’’
and indicates parts per 100 parts.
• 1% is the same as the fraction 1/100 or the decimal
fraction 0.01.
• to express a percent as a decimal, note that percent
means division by 100.
• To change a fraction to a percent, first change the
fraction to a decimal and then multiply it by 100.
71. Percent concentration expressions
• The concentration of a solution may be
expressed in terms of the quantity of solute in
definite volume of solution or as the quantity
of solute in a definite weight of solution.
• The quantity (or amount ) is an absolute value
(eg. 10ml, 5gm etc), whereas concentration is
the quantity of a substance in relation to a
definite volume or weight of other substance
(eg., 2g/5g, 4ml/5ml, etc)
72. • Percent can be
1. Percent weight in volume, %w/v: number of
grams of a constituent (solute) in 100ml of
liquid preparation (solution)
2. Percent weight in weight (percent by weight),
%w/w: number of grams of a
constituent(solute) in 100gm of preparation
(solution)
73. 3. Percent volume in volume (percent by
volume), %V/V: number of millilitres of a
constituent (solute) in 100ml of preparation
(solution)
74. Example 1:
If 4g of sucrose are dissolved in enough water
to make 250ml of solution, what is the
concentration in terms of 1% w/v of the
solution?
By the method of proportion:
4gm/250ml=Xgm/100ml
Solving for X, we get:
X=(100*4)/250=1.6g
Ans: 1.6gm in 100ml is 1.6% w/v
75. Example 2:
an injection contains 40mg pentobarbital
sodium in each millilitres of solution. What is
the concentration in terms of %w/v of the
solution?
by the method of proportion
40mg/1ml=xmg/100ml
Solving for X, we get:
X=(100x40)=4000mg or 4 g
Ans=4 g in 100ml is 4%w/v
76. Example 3:
How many grams of zinc chloride should be
used in preparing 5 L of the mouth wash
containing 1/10%w/v of zinc chloride?
1/10%=0.1%=0.4gm in 100ml
By the method of proportion:
0.1g/100ml=Xg/5000ml
X=(0.1x5000)/100
Ans:=5gm
77. Practice problems
1. A pharmacist dispenses 180 prescriptions a
day. How many more prescriptions does he
need to dispense each day to bring a 15%
increase?
2. If an ophthalmic solution contains 10mg of
pilocarpine in each millilitres of solution
would be needed to deliver 0.5mg of
pilocarpine?
78. 3. A pharmacist prepared a solution containing
10 million units of potassium penicillin per 20
ml. how many units of potassium penicillin
will a 0.5ml solution contain?
4. A cough syrup contains 5mg of
brompheniramine maleate in each 5ml dose.
How many milligrams of bromphniramine
maleate would be contained in a 120ml
container of the syrup?
79. 5 . What is the percentage strength, expressed as
% W/W, of a solution prepared by dissolving
60gm of potassium chloride in 150ml of
water?
6. How many grams of antipyrine should be
used in preparing 5% of a 60ml solution of
antipyrine?
80. 7.How many milligrams of a drug should be
used in preparing 5 L of a 0.01% drug
solution?
8. How many litters of 2%w/v iodine tincture
can be made from 108g of iodine?
9. How many millilitres of 0.9% sodium chloride
can be made from 325gm of sodium chloride?
10. If a physician order 25mg of a drug for a
patient, how many millilitres of a 2.5%W/V
solution of the drug should be used?
81. 11. A mouthwash contains 0.1%w/v
chlorhexidine gluconate. How much
chlorhexidine gluconate in grams is contained
in 250ml of the mouthwash?
12. What weight of miconazole is required to
make 40g of a cream containing 2%w/w of the
drug?
13. How much arachis oil is required to make
300ml of an emulsion containing 30%v/v of
arachis oil?
82. 14. A patient dissolves two tablets, each
containing 300mg of asprin, in 120ml of water.
What is the asprin concentration (%w/V) of
the solution?
15. Calculate the number of milligrams of
potassium permanganate in 90ml of a 1:500
w/v potassium permanganate solution.
83. Quantity per volume
• Quantity per volume expressions are used to
give the concentration of drugs in solution and
also for clinical laboratory test results.
Example 1: what weight of sodium bicarbonate
(in grams) is required to make 200ml of a 6g/L
solution ?
84. Example 2: a patient has a serum potassium level
of 4 mmole/L
a) How many millimoles of potassium are
present in a 20ml sample of the patient’s
serum?
b) How many milligrams of potassium are
present in this sample? (RMM of
potassium=40)
85. Ratio concentrations
• A ratio concentration is most commonly used
to express the concentration of very dilute
solutions.
• 1:5000 solution of a drug indicates that 1g of
the drug is dissolved in 5000ml (5L) of
solution.
Example 1: how many milligrams of adrenaline
are contained in 10ml of a 1:10000 solution
86. Example 2: what volume of a 1:20000 solution
of adrenaline would contain 50mg of the drug?
Example 3: a patient uses 200ml of a 1:8000
solution of an antiseptic, daily, for 10days.
How many grams of the antiseptic have been
used?
87. Parts as expressions of concentration
• This method of expressing concentration is
similar to ratio expressions except that the
convention is to replace the ratio symbol with
the word ‘in’
–1:1000 solution becomes a 1 in 1000,
but the meaning is unchanged, i.e. 1g
of a drug dissolved in 1000ml of a
solution
88. Example: a 10ml ampoule of a 1 in 200,000
solution of bupivacaine hydrochloride is
administered to a patient. How many
milligrams of bupivacaine hydrochloride does
the patient receive?
89. Converting between expressions of
concentration
• It is frequently necessary to convert between
the various expressions of concentration
Example 1: a solution contains 10mg of drug in
5ml of solution. Express this as a ratio
concentration.
91. Dilution and concentration
• The dilution of solutions is one of the most
frequently carried out calculations in
pharmacy.
• A stock solution, or concentrate, must often be
diluted to a particular strength for patient use
• When a solution of a given strength is diluted,
its strength will be reduced.
92. =
Mass of active
before dilution
Mass of active after
dilution
C1=M1
V1
=
C2=M2
V2
C1*V1
= M2=C2*V2
M1=C1*V1
C2*V2
=
93. • For this equation to hold, both concentrations
must be expressed in the same units and both
volumes must also be expressed in the same
units.
94. Practical Problems
• How many millilitres of a 1:5000 solution of
phenylmercuric nitrate can be made from
250ml of a 0.2%w/v solution of the
compound?
95. • How many millilitres of a 10%w/v solution of
an antiseptic must be used to make 4litres of
a 0.25%w/v solution?
• How many millilitres of water must be added
to 250ml of an 18%w/v stock solution of
sodium chloride to prepare a 0.9%w/v sodium
chloride solution?
96. • How many millilitres of a 0.2%w/v solution of
an antiseptic must be used to prepare 1 litre of
a 1:5000 solution?
• What volume of a 1:5000 solution of cetrimide
can be made from 100ml of a 4% solution of
cetrimide?
97. • How many millilitres of water must be added
to 50ml of 13%w/v aluminium acetate solution
to prepare a 0.65%w/v solution?
• If 5ml of a 20%w/v aqueous solution of
furosemide is diluted to 10ml, what will be the
final strength of furosemide?
98. • How many milliliters of 95%w/w sulfuric acid
having a specific gravity of 1.820 should be
used to make 2L of 10%w acid?
• How much water should be mixed with
5000ml of 85%v/v alcohol to make 50%v/v
alcohol?
99. • How many milliliters of water should be added
to 100ml of a 1:125w/v solution to make a
solution such that 25ml diluted to 100ml will
yield a 1:4000 dilution.
100. • Zephiran chloride solution(17%w/v)
purified water qs………………….480ml
sig: one tbsp. diluted to gallon with water to
make a 1:10,000 dilution.
How many milliliters of zephiran chloride
solution should be used in preparing the
prescription?
101. Dilution of solid preparations
• Occasionally, a prescriber may request the
dilution of active ingredients in solid
preparation.
The following formula should be used
=
C1M1 C2M2
102. Example 1: you are supplied with 50g of
salicylic acid ointment 2%w/w. what weight of
emulsifying ointment (diluent) should be
added to reduce the concentration of salicylic
acid to 0.5%w/w?
103. Example 2: how many grams of emulsifying
ointment must be added to 200g of 5%w/w
calamine in emulsifying ointment, in order to
reduce the calamine concentration to 2%w/w?
104. • We wish to dilute an ointment containing 14%
sulfur with petrolatum to make 60gm of an
ointment containing 10% sulfur. How many
grams of 14% sulfur ointment and how many
grams of petrolatum will be necessary to make
the dilution?
105. Concentration
• We can increase the concentration of a given
preparation either by increasing the active
(solute ) or if we can by evaporating the
solvent results in decreased the volume
(amount ) of the total preparation.
106. Example 1: what weight of coal tar extract must
be added to 100g of a cream containing
1%w/w coal tar extract to produce a cream
containing 25%w/w coal tar extract?
107. Example 2: what weight of coal tar extract must
be added to 200g of cream containing 1%w/w
coal tar extract to produce a cream containing
25%w/w coal tar extract?
108. Example 3: a cream (weight 30g) contains
0.1%w/w dithranol. What weight of dithranol
powder should be added to increase the
concentration to 1%w/w?
Example 4: salicylic acid ointment contains
2%w/w salicylic acid. What weight of salicylic
acid powder should be added to 50g of the
ointment to produce a 10%w/w ointment?
109. Example 5: a cream contains 10%w/w coal tar
solution. What weight of coal tar solution
should be incorporated into this cream to
produce 30g of cream containing 12%w/w coal
tar solution?
110. • Example 6: If phenobarbital elixir containing
4%w/v phenobarbital is evaporated to 90% of
its volume, what is the strength of
phenobarbital in the remaining solution?
111. • How many grams of pure coal tar should be
added to 36gm of 4% coal tar ointment to
make a 10% coal tar ointment?