Creating or discovering a new life form by the use of genetic engineering sounds interesting.. but is it actually possible to patent life forms?
Watch out to know.
The advances of modern plant technologies, especially genetically modified crops, are considered to be a substantial benefit to agriculture and society. However, so-called transgene escape remains and is of environmental and regulatory concern. Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs), developed to secure return on investments through protection of plant varieties, are among the most controversial and opposed genetic engineering biotechnologies as they are perceived as a tool to force farmers to depend on multinational corporations’ seed monopolies. In this work, the currently proposed strategies are described and compared with some of the principal techniques implemented for preventing transgene flow and/or seed saving, with a simultaneous analysis of the future perspectives of GURTs taking into account potential benefits, possible impacts on farmers and local plant genetic resources (PGR), hypothetical negative environmental issues and ethical concerns related to intellectual property that have led to the ban of this technology
CRITERIAS FOR PATENTING IN
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Survey participants confirm that the patent
system is an important incentive for
investment in research and development in
the field of biotechnology [3].
Patents and licenses for
biotechnological inventions are treated
an imperative incentive to stimulate
research, knowledge flows and the
entry of new technologies into markets.
PATENTING AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
PROTECTION OF PLANT VARIETIES AND FARMERS' RIGHTS ACT, 2001
BIOPROSPECTING AND BIOPIRACY
PATENTING ASPECTS OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND NATURAL PRODUCTS. CASE STUDY OF
CURCUMA & NEEM
The advances of modern plant technologies, especially genetically modified crops, are considered to be a substantial benefit to agriculture and society. However, so-called transgene escape remains and is of environmental and regulatory concern. Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs), developed to secure return on investments through protection of plant varieties, are among the most controversial and opposed genetic engineering biotechnologies as they are perceived as a tool to force farmers to depend on multinational corporations’ seed monopolies. In this work, the currently proposed strategies are described and compared with some of the principal techniques implemented for preventing transgene flow and/or seed saving, with a simultaneous analysis of the future perspectives of GURTs taking into account potential benefits, possible impacts on farmers and local plant genetic resources (PGR), hypothetical negative environmental issues and ethical concerns related to intellectual property that have led to the ban of this technology
CRITERIAS FOR PATENTING IN
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Survey participants confirm that the patent
system is an important incentive for
investment in research and development in
the field of biotechnology [3].
Patents and licenses for
biotechnological inventions are treated
an imperative incentive to stimulate
research, knowledge flows and the
entry of new technologies into markets.
PATENTING AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
PROTECTION OF PLANT VARIETIES AND FARMERS' RIGHTS ACT, 2001
BIOPROSPECTING AND BIOPIRACY
PATENTING ASPECTS OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND NATURAL PRODUCTS. CASE STUDY OF
CURCUMA & NEEM
THE FRONTIERS OF MONOPOLIZATION OF HUMAN GENESSaravanan A
This research work critically examines the current trends and future feasibility of gene patents with the help of most celebrated Myriad Genetics Gene Patent Case.
Patenting and Regulatory Requirements of Natural Products.pptxSonaliGadge4
Intellectual property is the property possessed by virtue of one’s intellectual creativity.
Intellectual property rights (IPR) are exclusive rights to make, use and sell a new product or technology for a limited period.
the slide include all aspects of IPR in india.
-Basics of IPR
-IPR regime in Indian Constitution
-procedure of application
-Current issues related to IPR
-India's Changing IPR and Effects
-Personalities of Indian IPR
Intellectual property, very broadly, means the legal rights which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields.
Intellectual property law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of those productions.
Intellectual property is traditionally divided into two branches, “industrial property” and “copyright.” Patents come under the former category
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
3. A life form as it occurs in nature is not
patentable
A captured life form is not patentable as well
because the caging concept is NOT NOVEL
4. Biological Patent
• A biological patent is a patent on an invention in
the field of biology, that ‘by law’ allows the
patent holder to exclude others from making,
using, selling or importing the protected
invention for a limited period of time.
• It may include biological technology and
products, GMOs and even genetic material.
• The scope and reach of such patents vary among
jurisdictions like Australia, Europe, India, China
and USA etc…
5. Patenting of Life forms as per TRIPS
Article 27.3 (b) explains that members which
exclude from patentability are-:
Plants and animals other than any kind of
Micro-organisms.
Essential biological process for the production
of plants and animals.
Naturally existing Life-forms.
6. On dissecting the same article, we figure out
that:-
• Must allow patents for microbes and
microbiological processes.
• Protection should be given for plant varieties.
• Patents should be provided for a genetically
modified organism that is useful or
purposeful.
7. .…The first fightback
Living things became the legal subjects to
patent in 1980, when the US supreme court
held that a bacterium designed by its inventor
ANAND MOHAN CHAKRABORTY, could
breakdown crude oil components and so was
the legitimate object of a patent.
8. • Indeed, as the Supreme court noted in that
case, Congressional intent regarding the
US PATENT ACT was that…
• Since then, many living or modified organisms
have been patented. For eg:- Oncomouse was
the first patented mammal.
Anything under the
sun that is made by
man is patentable.
9. Quick- FACTS
• After the completion of Human Genome Project in 2003,
nearly 25% of the genome (more than 4000 genes)- are
already covered by atleast one US patent.
• These include genes for Alzheimer's disease, colon cancer,
asthma and two in particular- BRCA1 and BRCA2
(associated with Breast cancer). Myriad genetics holds
right to these two genes.
• Since 1980, genes considered to have been “Isolated from
their natural state and purified” have been eligible for
patent protection. The first few patents include the DNA
altered for producing specific proteins like INSULIN.
10. Patent process in the United States of America
1
• Determine the type of Intellectual property you need
2
• Determine if your invention is really patentable.
3
• Determine the kind of Patent (Utility, design or plant).
4
• Get ready to apply Prepare and submit your initial
application.
11. 5
• Prepare and submit your initial application.
6
• Work with an examiner.
(Incomplete application will be notified of the
deficiencies by an official letter from the USPTO)
7
• Receive your approval
8
• Maintain your patent. Maintenance fees are required to
maintain a patent in force beyond 4, 8 and 12 years
after the issue date.
12. Patents granted in the US are by
Other countries generally go for
First to invent rule
First to file rule
13. Bt Cotton
Monsanto company patented genuity
‘Bollgard II cotton’, designed to resist worm
damage, reducing the need for farmers to
spray an Insecticide.
* The same company holds many patents on
agricultural products such as Cotton, Soybean,
Canola and Corn.
14. Rise AGAINST patenting Life in USA
• Patentability of life forms is a contentious issue.
While the usefulness of such inventions is proven,
ethical questions abound.
• Many people call the idea of creating life in a labs
“morally repugnant”, as well as owning the
products of that creation.
• Many fear a slippery slope: Today a mouse, a
plant; tomorrow a human???
15. • Considering the Oncomouse, legitimate questions
include whether intentionally creating life to
experience pain, sickness and medical procedures
is ethical?
• Regarding genetically modified agriculturally useful
products, the wisdom of placing control and
ownership over items essential to life- like staple
crop products (seeds)- into the hands of few, is to a
large extent a matter of concern.
• Complications arise when the GM crops cross-
pollinate with the non- modified ones, resulting in
genes that are patented. In this scenario, patent
Infringement is placed on the unwitting possessor
of those progeny.
16. Patenting Scenario in INDIA
• India became a signatory of the Budapest treaty in
2001. It’s purpose was the sufficiency of disclosure of
biological material.
• International Depository Authority( IDA) was setup at
MTCC centre at Chandigarh in 2002, for the deposit of
various organisms and their requirements.
• The Indian Patent Act has been amended with effect
from January 2005 to comply with the TRIPS
agreement.
• Main provision of this act is to allow the grant of
product patents in the field of Chemical, food,
pharmaceutical and biotechnology.
• Grant of patents for microbiological inventions (that
falls under product patent) is for a period of 20 years
from the date of filing.
17. • The patentable Biotechnological inventions can be
broadly categorized as-
• Unlike the developed countries, India does not
provide patenting of micro-organisms that already
exist in nature. WHY?*
• But Genetically modified versions of the same
microorganisms that result in enhancement of its
known efficacies are patentable.
Products in the form of chemicals, plant extracts, ferments,
fermented material; processes/methods for using useful
products and compositions/ formulations of product such as
VACCINES, PROTEINS and HORMONES.
18. The Landmark Case
• In 2002, Kolkata high court granted patent for
the invention involving micro-organisms.
• This actually happened when Dimminaco A.G.
filed a process patent of preparing infectious
Bursitis vaccine.
• His application was initially turned down by
the Patent Office.
19. Patentables in Indian BT Status
• Recombinant DNA, Plasmids
• Process of manufacturing Recombinant
microorganisms.
• DNA sequence whose function is disclosed.
• Recombinant micro-organisms.
20. Non- Patentables in Indian BT Status
• Living entities of natural origin
• Any process of manufacture or production
of living entities.
• Any method of treatment to human beings
or animals.
• Biological materials such as organs, tissues,
cells, viruses and process of preparing
them.
21. • Any biological method or material causing
serious prejudice to human, plant life, health
or threats to environment.
• Transgenic plants and animals
• Process of cloning plants and animals.
• Essentially biological process of plants and
animals.
22. Present needs in Indian BT status
Patent awareness
programmes
Patent cell for
biological materials
Increase the number
of depositories