This document summarizes Carl Jung's theory of cognitive styles in learning and problem solving, which categorizes people into four types based on how they gather and evaluate information: - Sensation-Thinkers (STs) focus on concrete facts and details and make logical, impersonal decisions. They prefer structured organizations with clear rules. - Intuitive-Thinkers (NTs) focus on abstract concepts and theoretical frameworks. They prioritize idealistic goals over efficiency and structure. - Sensation-Feelers (SFs) focus on interpersonal relationships and concrete human factors. They design organizations to meet members' needs through clear communication. - Intuitive-Feelers (NF

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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
EXERCISE
Cognitive Style in Learning and Problem Solving
Carl Gustav Jung, upon whose ideas the following reading is based, was one of Freud's most
distinguished pupils. Like most of Freud's protégées, Jung eventually broke with Freud and
began developing his own theory of human personality. In one part of his theory, he discusses
personality types based upon four bipolar dimensions of personality (i.e., extroversion-
introversion, perceiving-judging, sensation-intuition, and thinking feeling). A number of
management writers have found the latter two dimensions highly useful in understanding how
people learn, communicate, solve problems, and, make decisions in organizations.
Our model is based on the dual premise that consistent modes of thought develop through
training and experience and that these modes can be classified along two dimensions,
information gathering and information evaluation.
Information gathering essentially relates to the perceptual process by which the mind organizes
the diffuse verbal and nonverbal stimuli it encounters. he resultant "information" is the outcome
of a complex coding that is heavily dependent on the individual's mental set. Of necessity,
information gathering involves rejecting some of the data encountered in the environment ad
summarizing and categorizing the rest. According to Jung (1953), individuals can take in data
from their environment by either sensation or intuition; most individuals tend to have a primary
style. Sensing types typically take in information via their senses and are most comfortable
when attending to details-the specifics of the situation. These individuals tend to break down the
information into small "bits" that contain hard facts pertaining to tie situation. In contrast, intuitive
types typically take in information by looking at the whole situation. They bring to bear concepts
to filter data, focus on relationships between items, and look for deviations from or conformities
with their expectations. These types tend to concentrate on hypothetical possibilities of the
situation rather than hard facts and details.
Each mode of information gathering has its advantages. The sensing type of change agent may
overlook the problems inherent in a failure to shape the client organization's problem into a
coherent whole. He or she can develop a procedure that utilizes personal experiences and
economizes on effort. The intuitive change agent might ignore the relevant detail that can es-
tablish bench marks for the organization. The intuitive person, however, is better able to
approach a client system with an ill-structured problem for which the volume of data, the criteria
for solution, or the nature of the problem itself does not allow a "scientific" mode of inquiry. Jung
maintained that individuals perceive a situation in a set way and, in fact, cannot apply both types
of information gathering techniques simultaneously.
Information evaluation refers to processes commonly used in reaching a decision about a
problem. Jung posited that there are two basic ways of reaching a decision: thinking and feeling.
Thinking persons tend to approach a problem by structuring it in terms of the scientific method,
which leads to a feasible solution. They do not feel comfortable unless a logical or an analytical
basis for their decision making can be used. They can take two situations that are inherently
different and seek to find ways in which they are similar. Feeling types, on the other hand, make
decisions based on extremely personal considerations, for example, how they feel about the
situation, the person, the value of the situation, etc. Feeling types want to personalize every
situation by stressing individual uniqueness.

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Combining these information-gathering modes (sensation and intuition) with the two information-
evaluation modes (thinking and feeling) in all possible ways allows us to talk about the following
four personal styles: sensation-thinkers (STs); sensation-feelers (SFs); intuitive-thinkers (NTs);
and intuitive-feelers (NFs) (see table below).
TABLE 1: Characteristics of personal style.
INFORMATION GATHERING
Intuitives Sensing Types
Like solving new problems.
Dislike doing the same thing over and over again.
Enjoy learning a new skill more than using it.
Work in bursts of energy powered by enthusiasm,
with slack periods in between.
Jump to conclusions frequently.
Are patient with complicated situations.
Are impatient with routine details.
Follow inspiration, good or bad.
Often tend to make errors of fact.
Dislike taking time for precision.
Dislike new problems unless there are standard
ways to solve them.
Like an established routine.
Enjoy using skills already learned more than
learning new ones.
Work more steadily, with realistic idea of how long
it will take.
Must usually work all the way through to reach a
conclusion.
Are impatient when the details are complicated.
Are patient with routine details.
Rarely trust inspirations, and don't usually feel
inspired.
Seldom make errors of fact. Tend to be good at
precise work.
INFORMATION EVALUATION
Feeling Types Thinking Types
Tend to be very aware of other people and their
feelings.
Enjoy pleasing people, even in unimportant things.
Like harmony.
Efficiency may be badly disturbed by office feuds.
Often let decision be influenced by their own or
other people's personal likes and wishes.
Need occasional praise.
Dislike telling people unpleasant things.
Relate well to most people.
Tend to be sympathetic.
Are relatively unemotional and uninterested in
people's feelings.
May hurt people's feelings without knowing it.
Like analysis and putting things into logical order.
Can get along without harmony.
Tend to decide impersonally, sometimes ignoring
people's wishes.
Need to be treated fairly.
Are able to reprimand people or fire them when
necessary.
Tend to relate well only to other thinking types.
May seem hard-hearted.
In each case, the manager was asked to describe his/her ideal organization by writing a story
about that organization. This approach is useful because managers are able to share different
stories in an atmosphere of trust and freedom without the fear of ridicule.
SENSATION-THINKERS
ST individuals emphasize and concentrate on specifics and factual details. They are sensitive to
the physical features of their work environments (e.g., hot or cold, dark or light). The building
should be conducive to good work, and the equipment should be maintained. The ideal
organization is one in which everybody knows exactly what his or her job requires and the
details are set forth in a manual of rules and regulations. Information flows more readily
downward than upward or in lateral directions. Subordinates are judged on the basis of their
technical ability to do their job, and if they are not suited for the job, they are urged to transfer to

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another position in the organization. Each person should receive adequate training for his or her
job to ensure uniformity in the application of rules and regulations. The ST individual
emphasizes impersonal rather than personal factors, is more authoritarian than democratic, sets
realistic as opposed to nebulous goals, and likes a well-defined organizational hierarchy as
opposed to a vague and unstructured pattern. In brief, the goals of an ST organization are
realistic, down-to-earth, limited, and most often narrowly economic. STs like organizations
characterized by high control, certainty, and specificity.
INTUITIVE-THINKERS
NTs are attracted to ill-defined and abstract work situations. They tend to focus on general
concepts and issues, as opposed to detailed work rules and hierarchical lines of authority. The
goals of the organization should be developed in response to the interrelation between
environmental- and member-generated factors such as clean air, water pollution, equal employ-
ment, etc. The structure of the organization encourages constant feedback and provides its own
goals, controls, divisions of labour, and motivation and reward structures. The NT individual is
more idealistic than realistic, more concerned with the intellectual and theoretical concepts of
organizations in general than with efficiency, and has a tendency to avoid details of any par-
ticular work situation. In brief, NT organizations are impersonally idealistic.
INTUITIVE-FEELERS
NFs usually show an aversion toward paying attention to specifics and usually re preoccupied
with broad, global themes and issues such as "making a contribution to mankind." They assert
that the organization's main purpose is to serve the personal and social needs of people. The
ideal organization for an NF is one that is completely decentralized, with no clear lines of
authority, no central leader, and no fixed, prescribed rules of behaviour. NFs regularly refer to
flexibility and decentralization and are also concerned with the long-term goal orientation of the
organization.
SENSATION-FEELERS
SFs are concerned with the detailed human relations in their particular organization and/or
department. These individuals are realistic in the design of their organizations, with a major
emphasis on the interpersonal environment that is created by the rules and regulations of the
organization. The SF designs the organization with its hierarchy and rules for the benefit of the
members (e.g., to promote the satisfaction of their needs, to openly communicate with one
another, etc.).
DISCUSSION QUESTION:
What type of organisation and what department (function) would be most appropriate to each
learning/ problem-solving style? Give examples of functions as well as the companies.
(500 words)