OHS MY POWER POINT.pdf

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
OHS

INTRODUCTION
Occupational health is an aspect of public health
program. It was established to ensure that the health
status of everybody in any occupation is protected,
maintained and promoted. It considers the physical,
mental and social dimensions of man in the work
environment.

WHAT IS OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
According to the World health organization (WHO)
Occupational Health and Safety is the promotion and
maintenance of the highest degree of the physical,
mental, economic and social well-being of the workers
in all occupations.

The major goals of Occupational Health and Safety Act
are:
❖To protect workers from hazards on the job.
❖To set standards for health and safety in the workplace.
❖To set out the duties of employers, supervisors and
workers in the workplace
Protecting the safety, health and welfare of people
engaged in work is the primary goal of occupational
health in every country.

PRINCIPALS OF OHS
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
"Unless and until the employer has done everything and everything means a good deal - the
workman can do next to nothing to protect himself; although he is naturally willing enough to do
his share”. All workmen should be told something of the danger of the material with which they
come into contact, and not to be left to find out for themselves - sometimes at the cost of their
lives". Leggee (1863 - 1932).
The following are some of the fundamental principles of occupation health and safety;
❖ Set the conditions governing the design, construction and layout of undertakings with a view to
avoiding or minimizing hazards;
❖ ensure that hazards are avoided or controlled when operations begin, or when major
alterations or changes are made;

For us to appreciate what occupation health and safety
is all about, we need to understand the following term:
•Occupation
•Health
•Safety
•Accidents, Incidents and a Near miss
•Fatal
•Occupational hygiene
•Hygiene
•Occupational medicine

➢Occupation; it can be a business, professional or job. According to the
occupation health and safety act No 36 of the 2010 of the laws of zambia.
➢Health; means free from illness or injury attributable to occupational cause.
➢Safety; is the state, place or system where one is free from danger or risk.
➢Accident; an unexpected incident or exposure that results in an injury, death,
illness to an employee or property damage. (It is an unplanned occurrence)
➢An incident; is the sequence of events or actions that may produces an accident.
➢A near miss; is an unplanned event that did not results in injury, illness or
damage but had the potential to do so.
➢Fatal; is work related death caused by unsafe working conditions
➢Occupational hygiene is the science and art which is devoted to the recognition,
evaluation and control of those environmental health factors which arise in the
workplace, and which may cause sickness, impaired health, discomfort or
inefficiency among workers or citizens of the country.
➢Hygiene is defined as the study and practice of cleanliness as a means of
promoting and maintaining good health standards and preventing diseases such as
diarrhea, cholera and corona virus (COVID19) etc.

HAZARD AND RISK
➢A hazard is any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on
something or someone.
➢A risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an
adverse health effect if exposed to a hazard.
➢The following elements are key in managing risks and hazard prevention;
➢Risk assessment
➢Job safety analysis
➢Safety audits
➢Work-site analysis
➢ A risk assessment would look to identify environmental hazards and put
processes in place to mitigate the risk, while safety analysis will not. It is a process
that is used to look for potential hazards in a facility and created controls to help
mitigate them.

➢A job safety analysis looks at individual tasks. This can be done either as a
regular workplace safety task, or after an incident occurs. Before carrying out any
task, it is a requirement that a job safety analysis be done.
➢Work-site analysis- this is an essential procedure that helps in determining what
jobs and workstations are the sources of potential problems.
A Safety Audit
➢An Audit – assesses operational compliance with the company policy, procedures
and ongoing legislative requirements.
➢A safety audit is a general term used to describe an activity where a facility
gathers information about one or more aspects of the workplace in order to
evaluate the risk levels for health or safety issues. During this audit one or more
people will gather data related to the efficiency, reliability and effectiveness of
their health and safety systems.

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL
What is hazard identification?
Hazard identification is part of the process used to evaluate if any particular
situation, system, operation, item, thing, etc. may have the potential to cause
harm. The term often used to describe the full process is risk assessment.
TYPES OF HAZARDS
The common way to classify hazards is by category:
➢Biological hazards – from bacteria, viruses, insects, plants, birds, animals, and
humans, etc.
➢Chemical hazards – depends on the physical, chemical and toxic properties of
the chemical.
➢Ergonomic hazards – musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) which may be caused by
repetitive movements or improper set up of a workstation, etc.
➢Physical hazards – radiation, magnetic fields, temperature extremes, pressure
extremes (high pressure or vacuum), noise, etc.
➢Psychosocial hazards – stress, violence, domestic problems etc.
➢NO safety policy –

OVERCONFIDENCE.
Overconfidence bias is a tendency to hold a false and misleading assessment of
our skills, intellect, or talent. It is an egotistical belief that we are better than we
actually are. Overconfidence is behavior hazard if left unchecked.
RISK CONTROL PROCES
Risk control process is achieved through the following
1. Identifying hazards and risk factors that have the potential to cause harm.
(hazard identification).
2. Analyzing and evaluating the risks associated with the hazards. (risk analysis,
and risk evaluation).
3. Determining appropriate ways to eliminate the hazards, or control the risk if
the hazard cannot be eliminated. (risk control).
The overall goal of hazard identification is to find and record possible hazards that
may be present in your workplace. It may help to work as a team and include both
people familiar with the work area, as well as people who are not – this way you
have both the experienced and fresh eye to conduct the inspection.

When should hazard identification be done?
Hazard identification can be done:
During design and implementation
• Designing a new process or procedure
• Purchasing and installing new machinery
Before tasks are done
• Checking equipment or following processes
• Reviewing surroundings before each shift
While tasks are being done
• Be aware of changes, abnormal conditions, or sudden emissions
During inspections
• Formal, informal, supervisor, health and safety committee
After incidents
• Near misses or minor events
• Injuries

OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE
Occupational hygiene is the science and art which is devoted to the recognition,
evaluation and control of those environmental health factors which arise in the
workplace, and which may cause sickness, impaired health, discomfort or
inefficiency among workers or citizens of the country.
The following terms are key in the study and practice of hygiene.
1. Individual or personal hygiene,
2. Environmental or workplace hygiene (proper house keeping)
3. Contamination and contamination control
The purpose of industrial hygiene program is to;
1. To determine whether the work environment and working conditions of workers
are harmful to their health and well-being and prevent such conditions from
occurring.

2. To promote the best possible physical, mental and social health of people at work.
3. To prevent occupational diseases caused by physical chemical and biological
agents.
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
Is the science and art that is devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and
control of those environment factors or stresses arising in or from the workplace,
which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant
discomfort among worker or among the citizens of the community. It focuses on
environmental contaminants.
Environmental contaminants are any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological
substance or matter that has an adverse effect on air, water, soil, or living organisms.
TYPES OF CONTAMINATION
There are four categories of contamination in the food industry
➢Physical contamination
➢Chemical contamination

➢Microbiological contamination
➢Cross contamination
What is physical contamination(or foreign bodies)- Are objects such as hair, plant
stalks or pieces of plastic/metal that can occur as contaminants in food. It is a type
of contamination that is more common in food processing and substances.
What is chemical contamination-Refers to the addition or appearance of chemical
substances in inappropriate places, including the workplace, home, food and
environment.
What is biological contamination- It is the presence in the environment of living
organisms or agents derived by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and mammal and birds
antigens that can cause many health effects.
What is cross contamination- Is the transfer of bacteria or other microorganisms
from one substance to another.

OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE
Occupational Medicine (OM) is a branch of medicine that deals with a worker and
occupationally related disease. The objective of OM is to protect the worker
against hazards in the working environment and the treatment of emergency
conditions sustained during the working time.
Duties of Occupational Medical Practitioner (0MP)
Occupational medical practitioners must take every measure that is reasonably
practicable to;-
➢ Promote the health and safety of employees in the workplace.
➢ Assist employees in matters related to occupational medicine.

PATIENTS RIGHT TO PRIVACY
A patient, who is examined by an Occupational Medical Practitioner (OMP), has
the rights to confidentiality. This right is grounded in the ethical, legal and
constitutional entrenchment of the right to privacy. However, in many situations
undergoing a medical examination amounts to an implied consent for the results to
be disclosed to the employer. This is true of a pre-employment medical to establish
whether an employee has the physical capacity to perform a particular task.
However, the doctor may only release information that is relevant to assessing the
employee’s physical capacity to perform that particular task.
The patient’s right to confidentiality is not absolute. There are circumstances
where, for instance, the
law requires all doctors to notify the relevant authorities that the employee has a
notifiable condition.

WORK OPERATION CATEGORIES AND SAFETY
There 3 main categories of work at the workplace;
1. Ground /surface operations and safety
2. Confined and underground operations and safety
3. Working at height operations and safety

NOTE, Safety is not about years of experience on a given job or task
but it is about observing and adhering to safety regulations at all times.
➢Do you understand the task or the job you are given to do?
➢Are you competent enough to do it own your own or you need close
supervision?
➢Do you know and understand the safety of that operation or task?
➢Do you have the right tools for the tasks and are they in good
condition?
➢Are you physically and mentally fit for the task?
➢Can you identify the risks associated with the task?
➢Is the environment safe for you and the task?

Ground /surface operations and safety
Construction site works, repair workshops, shopping centers, open-pit mines and
airports are some of the open or surface operation areas. These places are to be
kept clean and organized every time.
The following elements are important to achieving a hazard free working are;
➢ Housekeeping
➢ Waste disposal
➢ Spills control
➢ Tools and equipment (housekeeping)
HOUSE KEEPING
A good housekeeping program plans and manages the orderly storage and
movement of materials from point of entry to exit. It includes a material flow plan
to ensure minimal handling. The plan also makes sure that work areas are not used
as storage areas by having workers move materials to and from work areas as
needed. Part of the plan could include investing in the extra bins more frequent
disposal.

WASTE DISPOSAL
The regular collection, grading and sorting of scrap contributes to good
housekeeping practice in any working area. Open or confined space operations
must be done in clean and well arranged environment.
➢Waste bins must be kept clean and disinfected if necessary.
➢Water waste must be treated if necessary.
➢Water must have a clear drainage systems.
SPILLS CONTROL
Spills must be controlled and managed well. If spills are left an attended to
immediately they happen they can cause serious injuries to health or even death.
If you see a spill, do not start looking for the person who did. Barricade the area,
make sure there is complete zero access to the area until the area has been worked
on and it is safe.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT (housekeeping)
Tool housekeeping is very important, whether in the tool room, on the rack, in the
yard, or on the bench. Tools require suitable fixtures with marked locations to
provide an orderly arrangement. Returning tools promptly after use reduces the
chances of harm of to the workforce. Machines or equipment must be inspected
regularly, cleaned and repaired successfully. All tools that damaged or worn must
be taken out of service.
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPROPER HOUSEKEEPING OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
➢ Flying objects from lawnmowers
➢ Scattered material offcuts from a grinder, e.g. wood, metal and plastics.
➢ Flying material from a grinder, e.g fire sparks.
➢ Careless equipment parking
➢ Scattered carts and pallets
➢ Naked electrical cables
➢ Uneven or unstable surfaces or floors

Confined and underground operations and safety
COFINED SPACES
A confined space is an enclosed or partially enclosed space not intended or
designed for continuous human occupancy with a restricted means of entry or exit.
Examples of confined spaces are;
➢ Pipes
➢ Tunnels
➢ Curves

These work spaces may or may not be large enough for an employee to enter and
perform the assigned responsibilities and they usually have limited exit options.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) uses the words
“permit-required confined space” to describe a specific confined space, meeting
one or more of the following characteristics:
➢ Hazardous (or potentially hazardous) atmosphere
➢ Potential to engulf worker
➢ Walls that converge inward
➢ Floors that slope downward and taper into an area that could entrap or
suffocate entrant
➢ Contains any other recognized safety/health hazard (i.e. exposed live wires or
heat stress)
➢ The possibilities of the tunnel to collapse
➢ Are there moving equipment or electrical equipment
Whether you’re working in a tank, vessel, tunnel or manhole, there are certain
things to keep in mind.

Confined space entry basic rules
1. Plan how to enter and enter with easy
2. Plan how to come out and come out with easy
3. Plan how to work and work with easy
4. Make sure you have sufficient oxygen to avoid asphyxiation.
Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficiency supply of oxygen to the body that
arises from abnormal breathing. An example of asphyxia is choking.
5. Make sure everyone knows that you inside
6. Make you are permitted to enter and carry out the task
7. Do you know the structure layout of the confined space.
Underground tunnels have safety bays for personnel also known as refuge bays and
machines bays for earth moving machines, it is very important to know how these bays
are positioned, identified and used. Personnel must never take refuge in a machine bay.
All personnel working underground must carry an oxygen an oxygen supply equipment.

Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficiency supply of oxygen to the body
that arises from abnormal breathing. An example of asphyxia is choking.
Prepare oxygen supply and emergency rescue plans

Do you know the structure layout of the confined space

Confined Spaces: What to Do
• Know the Dangers – Make sure that you are well-informed of the specific risks
with each confined space job. There are severe hazards to be aware of such as
flooding, drowning, asphyxiation, toxic fumes, flammable air, lack of oxygen, etc.
Of course, these things happen under unfortunate circumstances. But, to accept
the job, you need to be informed of the risks that could occur.
• Ensure Capability – The person doing the job must be capable to complete it. If
they are healthy and properly trained and qualified in both the work needed and
the use of emergency equipment.
• Have a Plan – For every risk involved, come up with a plan to control these risks
for the specific work space. For example, if there is a confined work space with
reduced oxygen levels, make sure that your employer provides a breathing
apparatus or has the space ventilated before entering.

Confined Spaces: What NOT to Do
➢DON’T Ignore the Hazards – Unfortunately, accidents do happen. Just because a
confined space is safe one day doesn’t ensure its safe the following day. It’s
imperative to be aware of the risks involved.
➢DON’T Enter the Space Until It’s Safe – A confined space needs to be marked
safe before a worker enters the work area.
➢DON’T Forget about Emergency Arrangements – If someone is working in a
confined space, there needs to be a plan in place in order to know if they are
safe. And, if they are not safe, how will you get them out of the situation?
Safety is imperative. Many job sites come with dangers or risks to be aware of.
Do not take these lightly. Make sure that you are equipped with the proper gear,
knowledge and training to complete the job effectively and safely.

WORKING AT HEIGHT OPERATIONS
What is a Safety Harness?
A safety harness is a form of personal protective equipment (PPE) that is
designed to catch a person in case of falling while working at height.
In its most generic form, safety harnesses are setup by making a combination
between a stationary and a non stationary object. In practice, they are comprised
of rope, locking hardware, webbing and body wear.
➢Falls, even from low elevations can be disabling or even fatal
➢You cannot work at a height greater than 2meters if you are not protected by
guardrails or another type of fall protection system such a safety harness.

THE DO’S & DON’TS OF WORKING AT HEIGHTS
DOS
➢Do as much work as you can while you are on the ground.
➢Make sure that the employees can safely move to and from the area where they
are working at height.
➢Ensure that the equipment that you’re using for the job is strong, stable and
suitable enough to get the job done. Inspect and maintain them regularly.
➢Be careful when you are working near to a fragile surface.
➢Ensure that you are protected from falling objects.
➢Make preparations for emergency evacuations and rescues.
DON’TS
➢DON’T overload the ladders that they are working on, with equipment or
materials.
➢DON’T try to reach too far when you’re on a ladder or stepladder.
➢DON’T use ladders or stepladders to do work that entail heavy or strenuous
tasks. Only use them to do work that’s quick and light.

➢ DON’T allow incompetent workers do any work at height.
➢ DON’T lean or place the ladder on or fragile upper surfaces.
➢ DON’T stay quiet when you feel someone is compromising their own safety or
the safety of others
Assess the job before it begins. Will I be working at height? Could I be seriously
hurt if I fell? Does the anchor point I will be attaching to have the capability to
support me if I fall?
When accessing ladders, 3 point contact is a must. Ensure that ladder is in good
condition, on a stable surface and that work is not conducted from a ladder that
involves reaching or leaning and have a right size safety harness on

SAFETY COLOUR CODING, SIGHN POSTS AND MARKINGS
Safety Colours according to the Occupation Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and
American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
The term safety colour is used to describe the standard use of colours for safety
purposes in the workplace. There are many standards in place concerning safety
colours from a variety of organizations including OSHA, ANSI and others.
Depending on the situation, each colour is assigned a different meaning, which
allows peoples to immediately determine what type safety hazard is in the area,
even if they are too far away to read any actual writing.
OSHA Recommended Colour Coding
The first set of safety colours issued by OSHA covers the broad categories of
hazards that exist in facilities, and how people should be warned about them. There
are four main types of warning language used for this set of standards:

➢Danger- To alert people to a danger (which is used when there is an immediate
risk), OSHA says signs and other safety signals should be red or predominantly
red. Any lettering or symbols need to be a contrasting colour to ensure maximum
visibility.
➢Warning- The warning category is for when there is a risk, but it is not as severe
or immediate as when danger is used. The safety colour associated with warning is
orange or predominantly orange.
➢Caution- The category is for alerting people to a potential risk, and the colour
used is yellow or predominantly yellow.
Biological hazard- Biohazards dangers have gotten their own category because of
the unique risks they present. When using a safety about biohazards, the colour to
use is fluorescent orange or

WORKERS’ DUTIES AND RIGHTS
The cooperation of workers within the enterprise is vital for the prevention of
occupational accidents and diseases. The enterprise’s safety and health policy
should therefore encourage workers and their representatives to play this essential
role.
➢Workers should have adequate information on measures taken by the employer
to secure occupational safety and health practices and policies
➢Workers should undergo appropriate training in occupational health and safety
and have the opportunity to enquire into and be consulted by the employer on
all aspects of occupational safety and health associated with their work.
➢Take reasonable care for their own safety and that of other persons who may be
affected by their acts or omissions
➢Comply with instructions given for their own safety and health, and those of
others, and with safety and health procedures

EMPLOYEE AND EMPLOYER RESPONSIBILITIES
EMPLOYER RESPONSIBILITIES
❖Because occupational hazards arise at the workplace, it is the responsibility of
employers to ensure that the working environment is safe and healthy. This means that
they must prevent, and protect workers from, occupational risks.
❖Employers’ responsibility goes further, entailing knowledge of occupational hazards
and a commitment to ensure that management processes promote safety and health at
work. For example, an awareness of safety and health implications should guide
decisions on the choice of technology and on how work is organized.
❖Workers need to know not only how to do their jobs, but also how to protect their lives
and health and those of their co-workers while working. Therefore it is the
responsibility of the employer to provide the necessary things such as; awareness,
effective tools or machinery, and personal protective equipment (PPE)
Where necessary, employers must be in a position to deal with accidents and
emergencies, including providing first-aid facilities and Record-keeping.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSIBILITY
➢Governments are responsible for drawing up occupational health and safety
policies and making sure that they are implemented. Policies will be reflected in
legislation, and legislation must be enforced.
➢The competent authority should issue and periodically review regulations or
codes of practice; instigate research to identify hazards and to find ways of
overcoming them; provide information and advice to employers and workers; and
take specific measures to avoid catastrophes where potential risks are high.
➢The competent authority should supervise and advise on the implementation of
a workers’ health surveillance system, which should be linked with programs to
prevent accident and disease and to Protect and promote workers’ health at both
enterprise and national levels.
➢NOTE; Legislation cannot cover all workplace risks, and it may also be advisable
to address occupational health and safety issues by means of collective
agreements reached between the social partners.

Duties of the Safety Auditor
➢ to carry out initial audits of a company’s safety programs at the
frequency determined by the enforcement agency;
➢ to determine subsequent audit frequencies within the range
appropriate for the priority classification of the business;
➢to assess company operations for compliance with the Safety
Standards;
➢ to carry out follow-up action to ensure that nonconformance have
been rectified; and
➢ to report the outcomes of the audit to relevant authorities or
management
A risk assessment, A job safety analysis and A Safety Audit are very
important elements in risk management and hazard prevention.

OCCUPATIONAL PROBLEMS
➢Social and environmental health problems- They include increase in migration of both
skilled and unskilled workers from rural to urban centers causing overcrowding and
environmental pollution.
➢Poisonous - harmful substances- Other than gases, fumes can be present in industries
and cause problems. Chemicals used in industrial plant
➢Extreme temperature conditions which are:
▪ HEAT - Excessive exposure to heat can cause a range of heat-related illnesses, from heat
rash and heat cramps to heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
▪ COLD - Prolonged exposure to freezing or cold temperatures may cause serious
health problems such as trench foot, frostbite, and hypothermia
➢Excessive noise pollution: Noise is a form of energy that is transmitted through the air
as waves with varying pressure (Achalu, 2000, p. 28). Noise is measured in decibels.

CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES/PROBLEMS
❖Lack of provision of protective (safety) devices by the employers of
labor.
❖ Inadequate or nonuse of safety devices by the respective worker.
❖Non or lack of compliance to company rules can predispose the
worker to various illnesses.
❖Lack of compliance to safety regulations and policy by employee or
employer
❖ Poor personal and environmental or workplace hygiene
❖Lack of safety management system (SMS)
❖Undertrained staff
❖Lack of ergonomic management and control system

BENEFITS OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
The benefits of Occupational Health at work settings are as follows;
➢Improved worker's health.
➢Improved workers efficiency and productivity.
➢Lower sickness rates, lower accidents and injury rates.
➢Lower compensation for occupational illnesses and injuries.
➢Improved corporate image and industrial
relations.
➢The environment is kept safe from pollution and contaminations
➢Improved intra-personal and inter-personal relationship within the companies,
the family and in the community.

GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
❖Your safety is your personal responsibility.
❖Always follow the correct procedures.
❖Never take shortcuts.
❖Take responsibility and clean up if you made a mess.
❖Clean and organize your workspace. Ensure a clear and easy route to emergency exits
and equipment.
❖Be alert and awake on the job.
❖Be attentive at all times to your work surroundings.
❖When in doubt, contact your supervisor or manager for instruction, guidance, or
training.
❖Never take risks when it comes to safety.
❖Obey safety signs, stickers, and tags
❖Always put on a well fitting personal protective equipment .

GENERAL MACHINERY AND HANDY TOOLS SAFETY
What is a machine
A machine is the devise that comprises of the stationary and moving parts
combined together to generate, transform or utilize the mechanical energy.
All machines are made up of elements or parts and units. Each element or
component is a separate part of the machine, these elements in turn can be a
complete part or made up of several pieces which are joined together by riveting,
welding or bolts and nuts.
Categories of machines
Considering the various applications of machines, they are classified into four
main types, these are;
1. Machines generating mechanical energy. These machines are also called
prime movers, they convert some form of energy like heat, hydraulic, electrical
, etc into mechanical energy or work. E.g combustion engines are machines
were the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into heat energy which in
turn is converted into mechanical energy.

2. Machines transforming mechanical energy. These machines are called
converting machines because they convert mechanical energy into other forms of
energy like electricity, hydraulic energy etc. E.g electric generator in which the
rotation of the shaft is converted into electrical energy and hydraulic pump in
which the rotation energy of rotors is converted into the hydraulic energy of the
fluid.
3. Machines utilizing mechanical energy. These machines receive mechanical
energy and utilize it for various applications. E.g lathe machines which utilizes the
mechanical energy to cut metals and washing machines which utilizes the rotation
of the rotor for washing the clothes.
4. Machines utilizing electrical energy. These machines receives electrical energy
and utilizes it for various applications. E.g a welding machine in which
electrical energy is converted into heat energy.
What is machine safety
These are safety guards and safe operations that are applied to both machinery
and operators who work with them. Examples are interlocks that stop a motor if a
person gets too close, guards that cover moving gears and blades and goggles and
protective clothing.

SAFETY GUARDS
A safety guard is a device that prevents the machine from being operated
unintentionally.

MACHINE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
Maintenance of machinery or equipment are intended to keep it in, or restore it
to, a state in which it can perform the required function well, protecting it from
failure or decline. Maintenance activities include:
➢inspection
➢replacement
➢testing
➢fault detection and repair
➢replacement of parts
➢Servicing
Equipment preventative maintenance is supposed to prevent safety hazards and
equipment malfunctions. A facility or machine that is well taken care of will be a
much safer environment for staff, tenants, and visitors. Some maintenance
procedures have inherent risks to which you never want to expose your staff.

Maintenance operations of equipment typically include both disassembly and
reassembly. This can be associated with a greater risk of human error, increasing the
accident risk.
Working under time pressure is also typical for equipment maintenance operations,
especially when shutdowns or high-priority repairs are involved.
As a result, there is a high risk of accidents related to machine maintenance activities.
Here are some of the most common accidents associated with machine maintenance:
➢ Crushing by machinery parts
➢ Injuries from unexpected machine start-up
➢ Oil spillage accidents
➢ Electrocution, electrical shocks or burns
➢ Explosions and fire.
➢ Trapped in articulation or pinch points
➢ Run over by un chocked or unlocked machine

Lock out Tag out (LOTO)
Remember to always lock out and tag out all machines under maintenance. This is
called zero access. Warning cards should be attached to machinery, with the date
and time of lock-out, as well as the name of the person authorized to remove the
lock. This way, the safety of the worker performing the maintenance on the
machine will not be jeopardized by another worker starting it up.

GUIDELINES TO FOLLOW DURING MAINTENANCE.
Do you know the operation system of this machine.
It is a requirement that all the maintenance personnel are trained and are
competent enough to carry out maintenance operations assigned to them. They
must know how machines or tools operate ,the hazards associated with the
operation, the function of machine safety guard system and the safe operation
system of the machines
Don’t perform maintenance on working equipment unless you know it is safe.
If you plan to perform maintenance on facility equipment or appliances, always
decommission it before calling your maintenance staff.
Equipment such as conveyor belts and heavy machinery should never be active
while the maintenance staff is working on them. This can lead to severe injury,
especially if the maintenance worker is unaware that the system is in use. If you
call in a maintenance request, be sure to stop running the equipment.

Machine safety guards
If possible, guards should be designed so as to allow minor maintenance on the
machines without removing them. If the guards must be removed or deactivated,
then lock-out procedures should be followed.
Appropriate machine training
Maintenance workers must be trained on how, and under which conditions,
safeguards may be removed.
Wear appropriate safety gear
Different maintenance tasks pose different safety risks. Full and good condition
PPE is very important. You can be a big help by providing eyewear, masks, or
special garments for your maintenance team or employees when they need to
work on facility equipment.

Don’t allow employees near maintenance work areas.
Employees should not be present while maintenance is working unless specifically
requested by the maintenance staff. The employee or manager that reported the
problem may be able to provide important information to the maintenance worker,
but they should not be close by while potentially hazardous maintenance work is
being performed.
Know where your emergency first aid supplies are located. Some accidents
cannot be prevented. In the event of an emergency, the facility manager and
employees should know where your first aid kit is located. Long-term injuries can
be minimized when treatment is provided immediately, even if it is basic such as
providing gauze to stop bleeding.
Have a no-tolerance policy for horseplay.
Horseplay is one of the most common causes of injuries in the workplace. This
can also distract maintenance workers who could be performing complex and
hazardous procedures on your equipment. Do not allow employees to “goof off”
in the office or in any place where heavy machinery is used.

A SAFETY COMMITTEE
A safety committee is an organizational group within a workplace with members
from management, the workforce as well as from all departments and staffs.
It is a joint worker-management team that assists the employer in creating and
maintaining a safe workplace.
➢The committee may be a formal arrangement with weekly or monthly
meetings. However, in smaller companies, it may be more effective to have all
staff attend a month or quarterly safety meeting. The safety committee will
share with management the responsibility for implementing the company safety
program.
➢Safety committee members are responsible for developing and reviewing safety
procedures and policies, investigating and reviewing accidents and
communicating safety issues or policies to company employees.

A SAFETY REPRESENTATIVE
A Health and Safety Representative is an employee who is nominated by fellow
non-managerial employees to work with the employer to determine and resolve
any health and safety issues in the workplace.
A Health and Safety Representative is responsible for handling health and safety
disputes by collaborating with the employer and health and safety officers.
The objective of a Health and Safety Representative is to reduce risk of injury or
illness in the workplace. Their duties include;
➢ Conducting investigations and inspections;
➢ Recording incidents, risks, and accidents;
➢ Performing monthly workplace assessments;
➢ Assisting in the implementation of using protective gear;
➢ Assisting with changes to processes that affect health and safety,
and identifying hazardous materials or environments.

HOW TO SET UP YOUR H&S COMMITTEE
When setting up your Health and Safety Committee, you can choose to include all
employees from the beginning or make the initial arrangements yourself. As
consultation is about talking and listening to each other, ideally you should agree
arrangements with your employees from the start. It involves them early so gives
them a say in how the committee should run.
If you have union-appointed representatives, the union will have written to you to
let you know who they are and they may have requested that you set up a
committee.
If you do not have union-appointed representatives, or they are not representing
everyone, then you will have to arrange elections for your employees so they can
choose their representatives. If you want to involve your employees from the
beginning of the process, then you can set up a small joint working group to get
the committee started. They can help you with arrangements for organizing the
election.

DUTIES OF A HEALTH AND SAFETY COMMITTEE
❖Make and assess statistics on accident records, ill health and sickness absence;
❖accident investigations and subsequent action;
❖inspections of the workplace by enforcing authorities, management or employee
health and safety representatives;
❖risk assessments;
❖health and safety training;
❖emergency procedures; and
❖changes in the workplace affecting the health, safety and welfare of employees.
❖ consider what precautions might be taken
❖recommend appropriate actions
❖monitor progress with implementing the health and safety interventions
Good practice
Think about minor incidents and address strategic issues

Good practice for management representatives includes the following;
➢Involving a representative from the most senior level of management possible,
such as a board member, to show commitment and leadership.
➢Involve a variety of people- a health and safety committee made up of employee
representatives ...
➢Consult representatives - consult employee representatives to agree the
membership and size of a safety committee;
➢Represent all groups - keep the total size reasonably small, but ensure all
significant employee groups are represented;
➢Keep a balance - make sure employee representatives are not out-numbered by
management representatives;
➢Represent employees - consider agreeing to more employee representatives
rather than equal numbers of employee and management representatives as this
shows you are not dominating the committee.

➢Keep a single location - ensure a committee's work is related to a single
establishment not a collection of geographically different places; and
➢Avoid duplication - avoid duplicating committees for the same workplace, for
example to represent different levels of staff.
Resources employee representatives need as committee members
Employee health and safety representatives need to have:
❖time to prepare for meetings as management representatives would;
❖access to the same information for the purposes of the discussion at the
meetings; and
❖training that is reasonable in the circumstances to allow them to perform their
role, which includes attending health and safety committee meetings for union-
appointed representatives. Training for representatives can help them to
contribute equally to the committee's aims and purpose.
❖Being a member of the health and safety committee is part of a person's role as
a health and safety representative, so they should not suffer a loss of pay when
they attend meetings or carry out other activities on behalf of the committee.

LEGISLATION PART III
Occupational Health and Safety Act 36 of 2010. of the laws of zambia
HEALTH AND SAFETY COMMITTEES
11. Duty of employer to establish health and safety committee
An employer of ten or more persons at any workplace shall establish a health and
safety committee.
12. Composition of health and safety committee
(1) A health and safety committee established in accordance with section 11
shall—
(a) consist of an equal number of members, not less than two on each side,
representing the employer and the employees:
Provided that the representatives of the employees shall be chosen by the
employees or designated by a trade union; and
(b) be chaired by a person elected from amongst the employee representatives
or by the employer or the senior most member of management on an alternating
basis.

HEALTH AND SAFETY REPRESENTATIVES
➢The representatives of the employees on a health and safety committee shall elect from
amongst themselves a health and safety representative who shall coordinate health and
safety activities at their workplace.
➢Where there are only two representatives of the employees on the health and safety
committee, the employees whom they represent shall elect a health and safety
representative from the two representatives on the committee.
When setting up a dedicated health and safety committee, it is useful to agree
together on the following;
➢ The principles of how it will work best so that it is clear for all employees and
members of the committee;
➢ Who the members will be;
➢ How often the committee will meet;
➢ what the committee will do;
➢ How you will make decisions and deal with disagreements; and
➢ what resources representatives will need as committee members

PRESSURE VESSELS
A pressure vessel is a container that holds vapors, gases or liquids at pressures
above ambient pressure. Legally a vessel is considered to be a pressure vessel
when it holds vapors, gases, or liquids at pressures of 15psig or above.
Ambient pressure on an object is the pressure of the surrounding medium, such as
a gas or liquid, in contact with the object.
NOTE; Pressure vessels are exempted from regulation if:
➢Have a safety value set at 15 psi or less
➢are smaller than 5 cubic feet.
while these pressure vessels are exempted from state regulation, they can still be
harmful hence the need for care.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE VESSELS
TYPES OF PRESSUER VESSELS
According to pressure: There are two types of pressure vessels
➢Internal pressure
➢External pressure
According to material of constructions: there basically 3 types of materials
➢Steel pressure vessels
➢Cast iron pressure vessels
➢Aluminum pressure vessels
According to orientation: there are basically 3 main types
➢Horizontal pressure vessels
➢Vertical pressure vessels
➢Inclined pressure vessels

According to installation: there are 2 main types
➢Fixed pressure vessels
➢Portable pressure vessels
According to wall thickness: there are 2 main types
➢Thick walled pressure vessels
➢Thin walled pressure vessels.
PRESSURE VESSELS PARTS
➢Vessels body
➢Vessel head
➢Vessel support
➢Vessel nozzles
➢Vessel man ways

INSPECTION OF PRESSURE VESSELS
Inspection of pressure vessels are used in challenging industries environments,
which makes their inspection a challenging task. If any weak spots are ignored,
they may affect the performance of the pressure vessel.
The following factors must be kept in mind while inspecting them:
➢Inspection must be performed by certified professionals only as they can identify
the weak areas of the vessel .
➢The inspection must be conducted in adherence to established ̚industry
standards. Most inspectors perform the inspection in adherence to the ASME
standards which is the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the
National Board Inspection (NBI)
Pressure vessel inspection can be internal or external.
Internal pressure vessel: This inspection is performed when the pressure vessel is
empty and not in operation. internal inspection is mainly conducted to identify
wear and tear, and corrosion around components, welded nozzles and seams, and
areas near to welds, external controls or fittings, and so on.

External Inspection: As the name suggests, this type of inspection is conducted
outside the vessel when it is in opposition. During an external inspection, the
inspection examines the working of external components such as inlet piping,
vessel connections, outlet piping, and so on.
FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION
Frequency of Inspection depends on the hazard potential of the vessel. For
instance, the vessels that store hazardous contents may require regular inspection
compared to the ones that store relatively safe fluids.
Pressure Vessel Testing
Inspection is often ̚followed by different types of pressure tests such:
1. Hydrostatic Test: This is one of the important ways following which the
pressure vessels such as boilers, fuel tanks, and pipelines are tested for leaks as
well as strengths.
2. Pneumatic Tests: These tests demand a high level of potential energy, which is
why they are only performed whenever required. They are recommended
when pressure

Leak Tests: Vacuum and pressure vessels are subjected to leak tests to confirm
their maximum permissible leak specified in the document.
Mechanical Integrity Tests: These tests are conducted to check for the instability of
vacuum pressure vessels or buckling.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR OPERATING
➢Timely Maintenance
➢Proper Knowledge and Training
➢Understanding Operations
➢Installing Protective Devices
Timely maintenance: For a pressure vessel to function properly, it requires regular
maintenance.
✓You should have a proper maintenance program of the entire pressure system
✓Checks the age of the vessel. One thing you should keep your eyes on is the
✓Check for signs of problems such a safety valve discharging rapidly which could
be as a result of a faulty safety valve or over-pressurized system. Also check for
signs of wear or corrosion

Proper Knowledge and Training: The person operating or handling pressure vessels
should have a proper skill set as well as knowledge about the equipment. The
knowledge must include:
✓Repairing procedures
✓Maintenance procedures
✓Installation procedures
✓Pressure checks procedures
✓Material type of the vessel container
All personnel responsible for pressure vessels must be adequately trained and
certified.
Understanding operation conditions: this is one of the most important factors to
be considered.
✓You must understand the system’s operating limits.
✓You must know and understand the pressure vessel operating conditions which
include temperature and pressure.

✓Proper understanding about the gases or liquids contained in the pressure vessel
which include toxicity and flammability is extremely important.
Installing Protective Devices: when it comes to taking precautions of pressure
vessels, you need to ensure that suitable protective devices are properly installed,
and adjusted to the correct settings. These protective devices can be:
✓safety valves or any device which shuts down the operations when the
temperature or pressure exceeds the maximum valve.
✓Warning devices which send out signals by lighting or sound so that it grabs your
attention.
✓Always make sure protective devices are in good condition and only by a an
authorized person
REDUCING PRESSURE HAZARDS
➢Use appropriate materials
➢Avoid impacts
➢Secure cylinders
➢Store properly
➢Do not over pressurized
➢Examine labels

PRESSURE HAZARDS
When pressure vessels are misused or mishandled they become extremely
dangerous.
The following are the hazards associated with pressure hazards:
➢Poisoning
➢Suffocation
➢Fires
➢Explosion hazards

FIRE SAFETY
Fuel Oxygen
Heat
The fire triangle is useful for two reasons:
1. Fire prevention - if the three fire elements are kept apart fire cannot start.
2. Fire fighting - if one of the elements is removed the fire will go out.
Once a fire is started it will produce heat, a flame (the zone where oxygen and
flammable vapours are chemically combining in the combustion process) and
smoke. The exact composition of the smoke will vary but typically smoke is made
up of hot combustion gases such carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO).
Fire is a rapid chemical reaction of oxidation with fuel accompanied by the
release of energy. The fire triangle

Combustion Elements
For a fire to happen, the following elements are essential
➢ Oxygen, to sustain combustion
➢ Heat, to reach ignition temperature
➢ Fuel or combustible material
This results in a chemical chain reaction which states a fire. Removing any of these
elements will extinguish the fire.
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer occurs by
➢Direct Burning- the simplest method of fire spread, where a flame front moves
along or through the burning material. For example, if the corner of a piece of
paper catchers fire, the flame front will spread across the paper.

➢Conduction- transfer of heat within the material itself.
➢Convection- transfer of heat by the physical movement of hot masses of air.
➢Radiation- refers to the emission of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves.
➢Ignition - is the process of initiating self-sustained combustion. The ignition
temperature of a substance is the minimum temperature to which it must be
heated for it to ignite.
Sources of Ignition
➢Electrically powered equipment- Arcing, damaged wiring, overheating of cables
due to excess loads, loose electrical connections, heat from electrical bulbs etc.
➢Open flames, hot surfaces, Sparks form welding operations, Chemical reaction
between incompatible chemicals, Smoking, Batteries.
Flash Point
➢Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid produces enough vapour
to form an ignitable mixture. The lower the flash point a flammable liquid the
greater the hazard. In a flammable liquid fire, it is the vapours released from the
surfaces of the liquid that burns.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
On the basis of the type of fuel, fires are classified into the following:
❖Class A Fires - Solids combustible materials of organic nature such as, wood,
rubber, plastics, etc.
❖Class B Fires - Flammable liquids.
❖Class C Fires - flammable gasses under pressure, including liquefied gases.
❖Class D Fires - combustible metals, as magnesium, sodium, potassium, etc.
NOTE; Some classification of fire like the UK based may include Class F for high-
temperature fats and oils such as cooking fats. And the US based classification of
fire may also include Class K for kitchen fire.
.

Causes of Fire in The Workplace
Fires in workplace start for many different reasons. Some of the most common
causes of workplace fires are:
• Electrical equipment – faulty wiring, overloaded conductors, misused equipment
and the incorrect, unprofessional and inexperienced use of electrical equipment
in inappropriate environments.
• Deliberate ignition – many workplace fires are started deliberately. In some
cases, the workplace has been targeted, e.g. by a disgruntled employee or an
unhappy customer. In other cases youths playing with matches on an industrial
estate can also cause a fire.
• Hot work – any work involving the use of naked or open flames (e.g. a propane
torch or oxyacetylene cutting equipment), or which creates a significant ignition
source(e.g. arc-welding and grinding)
• Smoking – in particular, carelessly discarded smoking materials, such as cigarette
butts and matches.

• Cooking appliances, e.g. fat pans left unattended.
• Heating appliances, e.g. electrical fan heaters and space heaters, especially when
left unattended. Unsafe use and storage of flammable liquids and gases, e.g.
petrol, acetone and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Static sparks can be
generated, which could ignite a flammable vapor.
• Mechanical heat – generated by friction between moving parts, such as a motor
and its bearings, or cold work generating sparks.
• Chemical reactions – can also generate heat, e.g oxidizers ( rags soaked in oil and
solvents oxidize, heat is replaced and there is a risk of spontaneous combustion)
Consequences
Fires cause enormous damage to buildings and building contents. Items that are not
directly destroyed by the fire will often be severely affected by smoke damage.
These losses will usually be covered by insurance, although the loss of business and
premises are difficult to recover, leaving many people without jobs and a place of
work. People are also killed in case of fire in workplace not by direct flames only
but indirectly also by smoke inhalation. Serious burns may also results.
NOTE: Firefighting can cause pollution because of the large volumes of
contaminated water that run off the fire site into watercourses

Fire Risk Assessment
The three main reasons for assessing and managing fire risks are to:
1. Preventing harm to people – all employers have a moral duty to take appropriate
steps to ensure the health and safety of their employees and other people who
may be affected.
2. Comply with law – employers have legal obligations regarding fire safety and can
be penalized if they fail to meet those obligations.
3. Minimize the cost of fire in the workplace– most businesses that suffer a major
fire do not fully recover from its effects. If a factory or office burns down it may
never be rebuilt, costing not only the business, but also the jobs of workers based
there.
Carrying out a fire risk assessment allows a company to establish a suitable safety
management system and fire safety policy so it can continue to appreciate and
manage the risks from fire in the workplace, as well as assuring its business future
at the same time.

Factors to be considered in Fire Risk Assessment
Fire safety legislation and fire safety standards vary between countries, and from
region to region. Fire risk assessment is a legal requirement in many countries (e.g.
in the EU), However, some factors should be considered in any workplace, these
can best be described by applying risk assessment methods to fire safety.
There are many different methodologies for carrying out a fire risk assessment
but we will focus only on the five general factors with special emphasis on fire
safety.
Step 1: identify the fire hazards:
• Sources of fuel
• Sources of ignition
• Sources of oxygen
Step 2: identify the people who might be at risk:
• People in the premises
• Give special consideration to vulnerable people

Step 3: evaluation, identify and implement the fire precautions that are required:
• fire prevention
• prevention of the spread of smoke and flames
• fire detection and alarm
• firefighting equipment
• means of escape
• signs and notice
• Lighting
Step 4: recording findings, plan and train:
• Emergency plans
• Information and instruction
• Training
Step 5: review and revise the assessment as necessary
Extinguishing Fire
Fire can be extinguished by
➢ Cooling the fuel by removing heat (e.g. by applying water).
➢ Smothering by cutting off oxygen supply (e.g. by applying foam, carbon

➢Inhibition by stopping the chain reaction (e.g. by applying dry chemical power).
Type of fire extinguishers
Water fire extinguisher for class A fires.
Water must not be used on fires involving electrical equipment. Water is used to
remove heat. And must also not be used on metal fires.
Dry chemical powder fire extinguisher for class B and C fire. The main bass
chemicals in DCP extinguishers are sodium bicarbonate and potassium
bicarbonate. These extinguishers put out fires by coating the fuel surface with
chemical powder.
They separate the fuel from the oxygen in the air and prevent vapor formation. The
powder also interrupts the chemical chain reaction of fire. The disadvantage is that
it leaves residues which are difficult to clean.
Foam fire extinguisher for class A and B fire. It has a blanketing effect excluding
oxygen from the surface of the fuel as it spreads on the fuel. Prevents vapor
formation on the burning liquid. It must not be used on electrical and metal fire.

Carbon dioxide fire extinguisher for class B and C fire. These puts out the fire
by displacing oxygen in the surrounding air and is not suitable for metal firs
but can be used on electrical/electronic equipment. It also does not leave
residues.
Special dry powder class D fire. These are on metallic fires. They form a crust
on metal surface excluding air and also absorbs heat from the metal.
Operating a Fire Extinguisher
Fire extinguisher can be used by anybody they are simple to use and only have a
few steps to follow:
1. Hold the fire extinguisher in upright position and pull out the pin
2. Squeeze the lever or press the plunger down hard.
3. Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of the fire and maintain a safe distance of
1 or 1.5 meters away from the fire.
4. Use a sweeping motion to allow discharge to be directed over the entire fire area.

Fighting a fire on a windy day may be a bit of a challenge. Nevertheless wind can
also help direct the discharged substance (water) from the extinguisher to the fire
depending on the position and distance of the fire fighter from the fire.
EMERGENCY RESPONSE AND FIRE SAFETY PROTECTION
➢ Activate the manual fire alarm call point.
➢ Alert personnel nearby so that they can come to your help. Inform security
section.
➢ determine what is burning and use the right fire extinguishers always
➢ Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape behind you before
attempting to use an extinguisher to put out a fire. Inform the fire station if you
feel you can not tackle the fire by extinguishers

➢ Determine what is burning, and use the right extinguisher always
➢ Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape behind you before attempting
to use an extinguisher to put out a fire.
➢ Inform the fire station if you feel you cannot tackle the fire by extinguishers
➢ If are trapped in the building and cannot put the fire out with a fire extinguisher, do
not waste it out. Try to use it clear only your exit way but remember not wait until you
are trapped.
➢ When the fire alarm evacuates the building and assembles at the designated
assembly point.
➢ As you evacuate close the doors of the rooms, do not lock. This slows the spread of
smoke and fire. Also do not use lifts because they may fail, use stairs.
➢ If your clothes catch fire, stop, drop to the ground cover your face and roll back and
forth until the fire goes out. Do not run as it will make flame burn faster.
➢ Do not waste time looking for valuables to carry or start looking for clothes to up
on.
➢ Try to feel the door before opening, if the door is hot, try to use another door.
➢ Smoke can make it very difficult to see. Therefore it is advised to stay low and crawl
out of the room in cases of too much smoke.

RISK MANAGEMENT AND HAZARD PREVENTION
Health and Safety Risk Management is the systematic identification, assessment
and reduction of risk to staff, patients and others who may be affected by our work
activities.
Management is a process of planning, decision making, organizing, leading,
motivating and controlling the human recourses, financial, physical, environmental
and information resources of an organization or company.
It is important to understand that there is no such thing as absolute safety. A
workplace can never be completely safe from risks and hazards hence the need for
monitoring and evaluation of all workplace safety policies and systems.
Risk management is often based on the concept of ALARP or (‘as low as reasonably
practicable’). There is a wide acceptance that not all risk can be eliminated. The
concept of ALARP will be replaced by ALoS (acceptable level of safety) in the very
near future. All efforts should be made to reduce risks to the lowest level possible
until a point is reached at which the cost of introducing further safety measures
significantly outweighs the safety benefit.

Safety risk management performs the process of controlling risk through hazard
identification, analysis, risk assessment and developing risk controls.
Risk management is applied in 2 primary levels
1. The first is the process risk management
2. The second is the operational risk management
Processes risk management
Process risk management has 3 main areas to consider
➢ Policy
Policy is what needs to be done. A health and safety policy serves as the guide for
an employer’s health and safety programs. Without a well structured safety
policy, safety risk management will not operate effectively.
➢ Procedure
This is an organized method or way in which safety elements or activities are to be
done or implemented.

➢ Controls
These are required inspection items which defend against any possible risks which
can occur at any level of operation.
Operational risk management
➢ Operational controls
The operational control aspect involve how risk management is employed on a
mission by mission basis
➢ Team decision making
This starts with front line personnel. They must have tools and procedures that
help to make decisions
In order to effectively manage risks, there are five effective stages which must be
followed in risk management, these are;
1. System description and task analysis
2. Hazard identification
3. Risk analysis

4. Risk assessment
5. Risk control
System Description and Task Analysis
This is a system design function, it allows the company to know and understand
what they do and in which environment they achieve company goals.
System description and task analysis is the first step in risk management process. It
is also a predictive method of hazard identification.
Hazard identification; is part of the process used to evaluate if any particular
situation, item, thing, etc. may have the potential to cause harm
Risk analysis is the process of analyzing and evaluating the risks associated with the
hazards.
Risk assessment; is a process that is used to look for potential hazards in a facility.
Risk control These are required inspection items which defend against any possible
risks which can occur at any level of operation.

RISK MATRIX
The risk matrix below is also known as the risk assessment diagram which is used
to show the likelihood and the severity of risks in workplace. During risk
assessment
5 Almost Certain
LOW
4 Likely
3 Possible
2 Unlikely
1 Rare
LIKELIHOOD
SEVERERITY (IMPACT OR CONSEQUENCES)
LOW LOW MEDIUM MEDIUM
LOW MEDIUM MEDIUM MEDIUM HIGH
LOW MEDIUM MEDIUM HIGH HIGH
MEDIUM MEDIUM HIGH HIGH VERY HIGH
VERY HIGH
VERY HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
MEDIUM
1 Negligible 2 Minor 3 Moderate 4 Major 5 Extreme

Green: color means the risks are well controlled, precautions are sufficient and
reliable.
Yellow: means the risk is acceptable but of concern. The combination of the
severity of the consequence and the likelihood indicates that although
improvements would be desirable, serious adverse effects are unlikely.
Orange: means the risk is unacceptable, remedial action is necessary.
Red: means the risk is unacceptable, remedial action is urgent; consider stopping
the work or task until the risk can be reduced.
Risk Assessment
The main purpose of risk assessment is the analysis of potential threats to the well
being of staff and others from the organization activities; establishing what
controls are required in order to either remove or reduce these threats to
acceptable levels.
The risk assessment should focus on the significant hazards. The ones with the
potential to cause real harm.

A risk assessment can be broke into 5 step:
1. Identify the hazards
2. Decides who might be harmed and how
3. Evaluate the risk and decide on precautions
4. Record your findings and implement them
5. Monitor and review
➢Design a risk assessment form
A rist assessment form is a hazard checklist. Ones completed it becomes a working
document for the health and safety within a department.

SAFETY AUDIT IN RISK MANAGEMENT
Safety auditing is also one of the most important elements in Risk
Management system. Results of an audit will show the current safety
status of the facility or organization and give a direction of planning Risk
Management.
A safety audit is a general term used to describe an activity where a
facility gathers information about one or more aspects of the workplace
in order to evaluate the risk levels for health or safety issues.
During this audit one or more people will gather data related to the;
➢Efficiency
➢Reliability
➢Effectiveness of their health and safety systems
➢Operational compliance with the company policy, procedures and
ongoing legislative requirements

RISK IDENTIFICATION
➢Risk identification involves identifying sources of risk, areas of impact, events and
their causes and consequences.
➢Risk Management is the system that is capable of identifying risks in the
workplace. Risk management system is responsible for the following:
1. Identifying sources of the risk, areas of impact, events (including changes in
circumstances) and their ca uses and potential consequences
2. Describing those factors that might create, enhance, prevent, degrade,
accelerate or delay the achievement of your safety objectives.
Questions to identifying risks
➢ What could go wrong?
➢ What caused the risk?
➢ Where did it happen?
➢Why did it happen?
➢What is the impact?

TYPES OF RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Risk management is a major component of safety management systems(SMS).
Safety management system (SMS) provides a systematic way to control risks and
to provide assurance that those risk controls are effective.
There are three types of risk management strategies.
1. Reactive Risk Management
2. Proactive Risk Management
3. Predictive Risk Management
What is Reactive Risk Management, This is a process of reducing the damage of
potential threats and speed an organization’s recovery from them, but assumes
that those threats will happen eventually.
What is Proactive Risk Management, This is a process of identifying threats and
aims to prevent those events from ever happening again in the first place.
What is Predictive Risk Management, This is a technical process of anticipating
risks and risk controls. It is an element of proactive risk management.

Key Difference Between Proactive and Reactive Risk Management
Key difference between proactive and reactive risk management is that
the reactive risk management is a response based risk management approach,
which is dependent on accident evaluation and audit based findings
while proactive risk management is an adaptive, closed-loop feedback control
strategy based on measurement and observation.
Proactive risk management improves an organization’s ability to avoid or manage
both existing and emerging risks and helps adapt quickly to unwanted events or
crisis. It helps build an understanding required to measure and manage emerging
risks which give organizations a better view of tomorrow’s risk and how it impacts
their business.
Reactive risk management: Reactive risk management solely depends on past
accidental analysis and response.
Proactive risk management: Proactive risk management combines a mixed
method of past, present and future prediction before finding solutions to avoid
risks.

Flexibility
• Reactive risk management: Reactive risk management does not
accommodate prediction, creativity, and problem-solving ability of humans in its
approach which makes it less flexible to changes and challenges.
• Proactive risk management: Proactive risk management includes creative
thinking, prediction. Further, it principally depends on the accident source to
reduce the accident which is a human attribute. So, this lets it be very adaptive
to changing environment.
• Reactive risk management: catalogues all previous accidents and documents
them to find the errors which lead to the accident. Preventive measures are
recommended and implemented via the reactive risk management method. This
is the earlier model of risk management.

Risk management should be proactively implemented, rather than driven by
events.
Accidental analysis is part of the proactive risk management, with which accident
scenarios are built and the key employees and stakeholders who may create the
error for an accident, are identified. So, past accidents are important in proactive
risk management as well.
Risk Management System should encourage employees to:
➢Report promptly to their immediate supervisor any situation which they have
reason to believe could present a hazard and which they cannot themselves
correct and report any accident or injury to health which arises in the course of
or in connection with work
➢Effectively cooperate with their employers and other persons in complying with
the safety legislation and guidelines, and should not do anything to endanger
themselves and other persons
➢Use safety devices and protective equipment correctly (and not render them
inoperative).

INCIDENT INVESTIGATION
An incident is an occurrence, condition, or situation arising in the course of work
that resulted in or could have resulted in injuries, illnesses, damage to health, or
fatalities. Technically An incident; is the sequence of events or actions that
resulted or could have resulted in injuries, illnesses, damage to health or fatalities
An accident is an unplanned event or occurrence that interrupts the completion of
an activity and may or may not include injury or property damage.
Incidents need to be investigated whether an incident is a near miss or an actual
incident. Investigations reveal the effectiveness of hazard control in an organization
and identify before another like incident becomes a serious incident. The objective
of the incident investigation is to identify the root cause of the incident. Generally,
the supervisor of the scene of the incident investigates the incident firsthand.
However, a safety professional with good experience is the best investigator for any
incident.

In an incident investigation, there are six basic elements, who, what, when, where, why,
and how. Opinions and facts are to be distinguished and interviews, statements, and
questionnaires to be recorded.
Accident Investigation Definitions The Basics
Accident: An unexpected incident or exposure that results in an injury or illness to an
employee or property damage.
Incident: Often referred to as a near miss, this is an event that could have resulted in
personal harm or property damage.
Lost-time injury: When an employee gets injured while carrying out a work task for the
employer and unable to come in for their next shift or a longer stretch of time.
Hazard: Things or objects that have the potential to harm or cause illness.
Physical Exposure: An exposure which you must come into contact with to cause an injury
or illness.
Environmental Exposure: You must be in the general area to be affected, examples
include: loud noises, chemicals fumes, etc..
Direct cause: The result of the condition and/or behavior. The final event which produces
an accident.

Surface cause: Hazardous conditions and unsafe employee/management behaviors
that caused the accident.
Root cause: The underlying reason the surface cause exists.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Equipment worn to minimize exposure to a
variety of hazards. An example of PPE includes gloves or hard hats.
Unsafe conditions: Unsafe equipment/tools which directly cause the accident.
Unsafe actions: Harmful behaviors which contributed to the accident, this can
include gaps in safety training for staff.
System weaknesses: Underlying inadequate or missing programs, plans, policies,
processes, and procedures that contributed to the accident.

MATERIAL
TASK
MANAGEMENT
PERSONNEL
ENVIRONMENT
Figure 1
ACCIDENT CAUSATION MODEL
ACCIDENT CAUSATION MODEL

Task
➢Was a safe work procedure used?
➢Had conditions changed to make the normal procedure unsafe?
➢Were the appropriate tools and materials available?
➢ Were they used?
➢Were safety devices working properly?
➢ Was lockout used when necessary?
Material
➢Was there an equipment failure?
➢What caused it to fail?
➢ Was the machinery poorly designed?
➢Were hazardous substances involved?
➢ Were they clearly identified?
➢ Was the raw material substandard in some way?
➢Should personal protective equipment (PPE) have been used?
➢Was the PPE used?
➢ Were users of PPE properly trained?

•
Environment
The physical environment, and especially sudden changes to that environment,
are factors that need to be identified. The situation at the time of the accident is
what is important, not what the "usual" conditions were. For example, accident
investigators may want to know:
➢What were the weather conditions?
➢ Was poor housekeeping a problem?
➢ Was it too hot or too cold?
➢ Was noise a problem?
➢Was there adequate light?
➢Were toxic or hazardous gases, dusts, or fumes present?
Personnel
The physical and mental condition of those individuals directly involved in the
event must be explored. The purpose for investigating the accident is not to
establish blame against someone but the inquiry will not be complete unless
personal characteristics are considered. Some factors will remain essentially
constant while others may vary from day to day:

➢Were workers experienced in the work being done?
➢ Had they been adequately trained?
➢Can they physically do the work?
➢What was the status of their health?
➢ Were they tired?
➢Were they under stress (work or personal)?
➢Were they panicking due to Deadlines and Budget Factors?
➢Were they understand the influence of Alcohol or Drugs?
➢Is it overconfidence or lack of motivation Motivation?
Management
Management holds the legal responsibility for the safety of the workplace and
therefore the role of supervisors and higher management and the role or presence
of management systems must always be considered in an accident investigation.
Failures of management systems are often found to be direct or indirect factors in
accidents. Ask questions such as:

➢Were safety rules communicated to and understood by all employees?
➢ Were written procedures and orientation available?
➢Were they being enforced?
➢Was there adequate supervision?
➢ Were workers trained to do the work?
➢Had hazards been previously identified?
➢Had procedures been developed to overcome them?
➢Were unsafe conditions corrected?
➢Was regular maintenance of equipment carried out?
➢Were regular safety inspections carried out?
❖It should be emphasized that the above sample questions in all the four
categories do not make up a complete checklist, but are examples only. There is
more involved when it comes to accident investigations.

LADDERS AND SAFETY
Ladders are tools used to reach elevated working areas.
They are helpful if used properly and dangerous if not used correctly.
There are four major types of ladders
1. Portable ladders. These can be easily moved and carried by workers.
Portable ladders are classifies as either self supporting or non self supporting
2. Fixed ladders. These are ladders that are permanently attached to a building
or structure
3. Mobile ladder stands. These are movable self supporting ladders.
4. Job made ladders. These are fabricated at constructed sites and must meet
engineering specification.

It is important to select the right ladder to use. Before you select a ladder you
check to see if safer options exists. These safer options are;
➢ Can the work be performed on the ground.
➢ Can I use an aerial work platform
➢ Can I use scissor lift
If a ladder is required survey the job area to determine, the correct type of a
ladder.

Non self supported ladder
A non self supported ladders are ladders that can not stand on their on without
leaning on a structure. The rule setting up these ladders is a 4:1 rule as shown in
below.
The ladder must be extended 4meters
for every 1meters

An extension or straight ladder must be long
enough to extend at least 3 feet above the
point of support.

If a ladder is required survey the job area to determine;
➢the correct type of a ladder.
➢Your maximum working high
➢Your working loading. This is the weight of a worker + the weight of tools and
materials taken on to the ladder. The working load must be less than the ladder
capacity rating.
Ladders have five capacity rating;
1. Light duty type-3 capacity rating 200 lbs
2. Medium duty type-2 capacity rating 225 lbs
3. Heavy duty type-1 capacity rating 250 lbs
4. Extra heavy duty type-1A capacity rating 300 lbs
5. Special duty type-1AA capacity rating 375 lbs
You must know the duty rating of the ladder you are using and verify it is below
your working load.
You must also consider the ladder materials. ladders should have non conductive
side rails if they are used were contact with exposed sources of electricity is
possible.

DONTS
➢Don’t use ladders in poor weather conditions.
➢Don’t climb ladders when you are feeling sick or drowsy
➢Workers with the fear of height should only climb to levels they are comfortable
with
➢ Never use conductive ladders around sources of electricity
➢ Do not overload a ladder
➢ Do not jump off the ladder
➢ Do not skip a ladder rung
➢ Do not put ladders on unstable surfaces to raise its height.
➢ Ladders may not be moved, shifted or extended while occupied
➢ If possible avoid performing work on the ladder

Follow the belt backle rule, The center of waist should remain
inside the rungs of the ladder.
➢ Never lean to the side or to back of the ladder
➢ Don’t stand on the top rung of the ladder
➢ Don’t carry objects in your hand, use a tool belt to move tools
and items up and down the ladder
➢ Never leave a raise ladder un attended

Climb and Balance Safely
Ascend properly by maintaining three
points of contact with the ladder at all
times. Face the ladder, climb hand over
hand, and stay between the rails.

WAREHOUSE AND LOGISTICS
Warehouses serve as storage areas for large amounts of inventory that will
typically have to wait a month or more to be shipped to customers. While other
types of logistics facilities provide more timely service and a wider offering of
services, warehouses still occupy a vital role in a growing business’s logistics chain.
Quite simply, there are few other places that are safe and clean enough for
businesses to store inventory.
Logistics is the science and art of obtaining , producing and distributing material
and product in proper place and in proper quantities.
Warehousing is a place where goods and products are stored prior to it being
distributed, sold or used.
Logistic management it is the part of supply chain management that plans,
implements and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and
storage of goods, services and related information between the point of original
and the point of consumption in order to meeting customer’s requirements.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUPPLY CHAIN AND LOGISTICS
Supply Chain, is the transforming of raw materials into products and getting them
to customers while Logistics is the movement of materials in the supply chain.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAREHOUSES
➢Public warehouse
➢Private warehouse
➢Bonded warehouse
➢Smart warehouse
Public Warehouses
Public warehouses are owned by government entities and can be utilized by
private sector companies. They’re highly competitive and are often rented out on a
first-come, first-served basis. They play a vital role in supplementing the supply
chains of companies due to their flexibility despite their limitations.

Pros
➢The public warehouse can be an affordable storage warehousing option, allowing
for both personal and business use for a short time.
➢It’s easy to rent spaces in multiple locations and you can scale up (or down) your
rental space as your needs change.
➢With a pay-as-you-go model, you are free from a lengthy contract for space.
Cons
➢Public warehouses are often not current with state-of-the-art technology.
➢They may also experience surges in seasonal demand, making it difficult to
obtain space when you need it most.
➢Over time, the pay-as-you-go model can be more expensive than what you would
pay for a permanent space, at least in terms of the price per cubic foot.

Private Warehouses
A private warehouse is owned by wholesalers who rent out space on longer-term
contracts to a limited number of customers. They typically offer a wider range of
services than public warehouses, including greater access to and oversight of your
goods. They usually include a more specialized workforce that can do more than
basic storage warehousing tasks. Private warehouses may also be owned by a
single company that uses it for its own purposes. However, those added benefits
come at a cost, which could put them out of reach of some companies.
Pros
➢A private warehouse offers exclusive access to a limited number of customers or
only your employees, if you own the building.
➢They allow for a greater degree of control over operations and more specialized
services than a public facility.
➢A private warehouse is a good option for e-commerce businesses that need a
long-term solution for a strategic location.

Cons
➢A private warehouse is a more expensive option at first than a public warehouse
and requires a substantial capital investment should you decide to build it
yourself.
➢If your company owns the warehouse, your logistics chain won’t be as flexible as
other companies, should you need to change it.
Bonded Warehouses
➢Bonded warehouses are used to store, manufacture, or otherwise manipulate
dutiable goods prior to their sale. Goods may be stored for import or export duty
free until such a time as they are released to their buyers, at which time the
customs fees are paid.

Pros
➢Restricted items can be stored secure for up to two years until legal paperwork is
completed.
➢Their customs fees are not paid until products are purchased.
➢This also allows companies to store more of their product closer to foreign
consumers.
Cons
➢After a period of two years, the goods inside a bonded warehouse must be sold
if they haven’t been already, sometimes at a loss to their owner.
➢Bonds must be paid to warehouse authority whenever a space is rented. This
ensures no monetary loss is incurred when products are released.
➢Bonded warehouses are only available for goods that face duty fees.

Smart Warehouses
Smart warehouses heavily utilize automation to minimize human interaction with
products at every stage of the logistics process. They may integrate a wide range of
technologies, including robotics, RFID tagging, artificial intelligence, warehouse
management systems, and various online tools to make agile, efficient processes.
Pros
➢Much of the activity in a smart warehouse is automated and streamlined to eliminate
human error while improving efficiency.
➢They improve transparency, as you’ll have visibility around the clock into each stage of
the logistics process.
➢These facilities typically offer greater scalability than human-centric operations
➢When a smart warehouse works as intended, you’ll have little need to interact with the
few humans who run it.
Cons
➢Because it is automated and streamlined, AI sometimes makes mistakes in orders that
should require human judgement. These mistakes could damage your reputation and
may not be caught until after they have occurred.
➢Automated systems are vulnerable to hacking.
➢Power outages can take down critical systems, impeding warehouse logistics.

Warehousing Services
The key to finding the right storage warehousing provider for your business is
knowing what you need. Here’s a few questions to ask to guide your search.
➢Location: Where is the warehouse located? How close is it to your target market?
Is it near major transportation hubs that could help you easily reach other
markets in an emergency?
➢Scalability: How well can the warehouse scale its services to meet the projected
needs of your business? Are they equipped to handle seasonal or sudden spikes
in demand?
➢Reliability: What kind of record does the warehouse have in protecting its
customers’ inventory? What is their policy if your inventory is damaged or
delayed from shipping while in their facility?
➢Price: How much do the warehouse’s services cost?

PRINCIPLES OF LOGISTICS
The role of each element of logistics often defines the logistics activities within a
supply chain.
The problem with definitions and discussions of supply chains is that it is not easy
to recognize the role of logistics within them, which is why the supply chain river is
a simple way to relate the role of logistics within a supply chain.
The elements of logistics further help to explain what logistics activities and
processes are being undertaken in a supply chain.
There are five elements of logistics:
➢ Storage, warehousing and materials handling
➢Packaging and unitization
➢Inventory
➢Transport
➢Information and control

1. What is the role of storage, material handling and warehouses in logistics?
➢It is to enable a steady stream of products to be supplied by manufacturers. Why
is this important? Manufacturers need to operate at peak efficiency, but
consumers tend not to demand goods at the same rate as a manufacturer
supplies them.
➢There tends to be an imbalance between supply, which is steady, and demand,
which can be unpredictable. The answer is to store the surplus goods produced
by a manufacturer until they are demanded by consumers. To achieve this,
warehouse buildings are required. These need specialist storage equipment such
as shelving or racks and material handling equipment to move them around the
warehouse and to load and unload delivery vehicles.

2. What is the role of packaging and unitization?
➢A key definition and one of the Rs of logistics is the care and condition of a
product. Packaging is an essential part of that. Unitization is also important as
this assists storage and transportation. The easiest product to move and store is a
cube, so packaging and unitization attempts to take all different sizes and shapes
of product and pack them as near as possible into a cuboid shape.
3. What is the role of inventory?
➢Inventory is a logistics element that is closely related to storage and
warehousing. It is concerned with what stock to hold, where the stock is located
and how much stock to hold. Inventory is controlling the flows of goods going
into and out of a warehouse. How is this achieved? By looking at sales data of
past orders and using various mathematical and statistical tools to attempt to
predict how much goods will be demanded by consumers. Inventory
management is not an exact science, but depending on how variable demand can
be, it is a useful tool to help manage the flows of goods through the supply chain.

4. What is the role of transport?
➢A major element of logistics that most will recognize is transport. This includes all
modes of transport including road vehicles, freight trains, cargo shipping and air
transport. Without transport, goods would be unable to move from one stage to
another within a supply chain. Some goods with short supply chains, such as foods, do
not travel far. Other more complex products consist of many components that can be
transported from all over the world.
5. What is the role of information and control?
➢The element of information and control is needed by all the elements to act as triggers
to various operational procedures. We have mentioned the information needed for
inventory. Order levels help decide what orders need to be picked and packed in
warehouses and enable the planning and organization of transport. Information and
control’s role is to help design information systems that can control operational
procedures. They are also key in the forecasting of demand and inventory as already
mentioned.

HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
A hazardous chemical is a chemical that has properties with the potential to do
harm to human or animal health, the environment, or capable of damaging
property.
COMMON TYPES OF WORKPLACE HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
➢Chlorine
➢Fuels
➢fertilizers and fungicides
➢Photocopy toner
➢Glues
➢Cleaning agents
➢Paint and varnish
➢Acids
➢Industrial gases and fumes
➢Caustic soda, ammonia and other
alkalis

Hazardous chemicals can be grouped in the following categories
➢Toxic- chemicals that can cause conditions to the body
➢Carcinogenic chemicals- that can cause cancer after exposure
➢Corrosive chemicals- that can cause visible destruction alterations
➢Irritants chemicals- that cause an inflammatory effect
➢Sensitizers chemicals- that cause an allergic reaction in tissues
➢Flammable liquids- chemicals vapors that can cause fire
➢Combustible liquids- chemicals that combust after been exposed to high
temperatures
The chemicals can cause physical damage to the body.
Hazardous chemicals can have Chronic effects- a disease that develops over time.
Hazardous chemicals can have Acute effects- symptoms that appear or change
rapidly.

METHODS HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS ENTER THE BODY
The route of exposure is the method hazards chemicals enter the body
➢Inhalation- the chemical entering the body through breathing.
➢Absorption- the chemical entering the body through the skin.
➢Ingestion- the chemical entering the body through drinking.
Chemical safety begins with the written hazard communication program.
There are two primary methods to communicate in chemical safety information.
1. Ensuring chemical containers are properly labeled
2. Maintaining safety data sheet or SDSs.
A Safety data sheet is a source of detailed safety information on a particular
hazardous chemical. The supplier must provide a Safety data sheet or must be
downloaded.

SAFETY DATA SHEETS CONTAINS THE FOLLOWIN INFORMATION
➢CHEMICAL HEALTH HAZARDS
➢FLAMMABILITY OF THE CHEMICAL
➢FIRST AID AND FIREFIGHTING MEASURES
➢PRECAUTION FOR SAFET HANDLING AND STORAGE
➢APPROPRIATE ENGINEERING CONTROLS
➢ PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
➢EMERGENCY SPILL PROCEDURES
This information must be available on chemical containers
All workers using chemicals must have access to Safety Data Sheets

HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL SAFETY
1. Follow all establish procedures and perform job duties as you have been
trained
2. Be cautious and plan ahead. Think about what could wrong and pay close
attention to what you are doing while you work.
3. Always use required PPE. Inspect the PPE to make sure it not damaged
4. Make sure all containers are properly labeled and that the material is contained
in an appropriate container.
5. Avoid moving chemical substances from there actual containers to other
containers. If the substance is moved to a new container, make sure the new
container is fully labeled.
6. Always read the labels and the material safety data sheet (MSDS) before using
any material to make sure you understand hazards precautions.
7. Never eat or drink while handling hazardous substance and if your hands are
contaminated, don't use cosmetics or handle contact lenses

8. Use all materials solely for their intended purpose. Don’t for example, use
solvents to clean your hands, or gasoline to wipe down equipment.
9. Store all materials properly, separate incompatibles and store in ventilated, dry,
and cool areas.
10 After using hazardous substances, it is good practice to wash your hands before
removing the gloves and after removing the gloves and the area clean.
11 Learn and understand the emergency procedure, which are:
➢Evacuation procedure
➢Reporting procedure
➢Fire and spills procedure
➢Accident or injury procedure.

HAZARDOUS-WASTE MANAGEMENT,
The collection, treatment, and disposal of waste material that, when improperly
handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and safety or to
the environment.
Hazardous wastes can take the form of solids, liquids, sludges, or contained gases,
and they are generated primarily by chemical production, manufacturing, and
other industrial activities. They may cause damage during inadequate storage,
transportation, treatment, or disposal operations. Improper hazardous-waste
storage or disposal frequently contaminates surface water
and groundwater supplies as harmful water pollution and can also be a source of
dangerous land pollution.
People living in homes built near old and abandoned waste disposal sites may be
in a particularly vulnerable position. In an effort to remedy existing problems and
to prevent future harm from hazardous wastes, governments closely regulate the
practice of hazardous-waste management.

TRANSPORT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
Hazardous waste generated at a particular site often requires transport to an
approved treatment, storage, or disposal facility (TSDF). Because of potential
threats to public safety and the environment, transport is given special attention
by governmental agencies.
In addition to the occasional accidental spill, hazardous waste has, in the past,
been intentionally spilled or abandoned at random locations in a practice known
as “midnight dumping.” This practice has been greatly curtailed by the enactment
of laws that require proper labeling, transport, and tracking of all hazardous
wastes.

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