Occupational health and safety aims to promote worker well-being and prevent harm in the workplace. It involves identifying hazards, evaluating risks, and implementing controls such as eliminating hazards, substituting safer materials, using engineering controls, administrative controls like training, and personal protective equipment. Common hazards include physical, chemical, biological and ergonomic factors. Occupational health also encompasses hygiene, medicine and a worker's right to privacy regarding medical information. Proper management of issues like housekeeping, waste disposal and spills is important for safety on work sites.

2. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
OHS

3. INTRODUCTION
Occupational health is an aspect of public health
program. It was established to ensure that the health
status of everybody in any occupation is protected,
maintained and promoted. It considers the physical,
mental and social dimensions of man in the work
environment.

4. WHAT IS OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
• According to the World health organization (WHO) Occupational
Health and Safety is the promotion and maintenance of the highest
degree of the physical, mental, economic and social well-being of the
workers in all occupations.

5. The major goals of Occupational Health and Safety Act
are:
To protect workers from hazards on the job.
To set standards for health and safety in the workplace.
To set out the duties of employers, supervisors and
workers in the workplace
Protecting the safety, health and welfare of people
engaged in work is the primary goal of occupational
health in every country.

6. PRINCIPALS OF OHS
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
"Unless and until the employer has done everything and everything means a good deal - the
workman can do next to nothing to protect himself; although he is naturally willing enough to do
his share”. All workmen should be told something of the danger of the material with which they
come into contact, and not to be left to find out for themselves - sometimes at the cost of their
lives". Leggee (1863 - 1932).
The following are some of the fundamental principles of occupation health and safety;
 Set the conditions governing the design, construction and layout of undertakings with a view to
avoiding or minimizing hazards;
 ensure that hazards are avoided or controlled when operations begin, or when major
alterations or changes are made;

7. For us to appreciate what occupation health and safety
is all about, we need to understand the following term:
•Occupation
•Health
•Safety
•Accidents, Incidents and a Near miss
•Fatal
•Occupational hygiene
•Hygiene
•Occupational medicine

8. Occupation; it can be a business, professional or job. According to the
occupation health and safety act No 36 of the 2010 of the laws of zambia.
Health; means free from illness or injury attributable to occupational cause.
Safety; is the state, place or system where one is free from danger or risk.
Accident; an unexpected incident or exposure that results in an injury, death,
illness to an employee or property damage. (It is an unplanned occurrence)
An incident; is the sequence of events or actions that may produces an accident.
A near miss; is an unplanned event that did not results in injury, illness or
damage but had the potential to do so.
Fatal; is work related death caused by unsafe working conditions
Occupational hygiene is the science and art which is devoted to the recognition,
evaluation and control of those environmental health factors which arise in the
workplace, and which may cause sickness, impaired health, discomfort or
inefficiency among workers or citizens of the country.
Hygiene is defined as the study and practice of cleanliness as a means of
promoting and maintaining good health standards and preventing diseases such as
diarrhea, cholera and corona virus (COVID19) etc.

9. OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE
Occupational Medicine (OM) is a branch of medicine that deals with a worker and
occupationally related disease. The objective of OM is to protect the worker
against hazards in the working environment and the treatment of emergency
conditions sustained during the working time.
Duties of Occupational Medical Practitioner (0MP)
Occupational medical practitioners must take every measure that is reasonably
practicable to;-
 Promote the health and safety of employees in the workplace.
 Assist employees in matters related to occupational medicine.

10. PATIENTS RIGHT TO PRIVACY
A patient, who is examined by an Occupational Medical Practitioner (OMP), has
the rights to confidentiality. This right is grounded in the ethical, legal and
constitutional entrenchment of the right to privacy. However, in many situations
undergoing a medical examination amounts to an implied consent for the results to
be disclosed to the employer. This is true of a pre-employment medical to establish
whether an employee has the physical capacity to perform a particular task.
However, the doctor may only release information that is relevant to assessing the
employee’s physical capacity to perform that particular task.
The patient’s right to confidentiality is not absolute. There are circumstances
where, for instance, the
law requires all doctors to notify the relevant authorities that the employee has a
notifiable condition.

11. OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE
Occupational hygiene is the science and art which is devoted to the recognition,
evaluation and control of those environmental health factors which arise in the
workplace, and which may cause sickness, impaired health, discomfort or
inefficiency among workers or citizens of the country.
The following terms are key in the study and practice of hygiene.
1. Individual or personal hygiene,
2. Environmental or workplace hygiene (proper house keeping)
3. Contamination and contamination control
The purpose of industrial hygiene program is to;
1. To determine whether the work environment and working conditions of workers
are harmful to their health and well-being and prevent such conditions from
occurring.

12. 2. To promote the best possible physical, mental and social health of people at work.
3.To prevent occupational diseases caused by physical chemical and biological
agents.
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
Is the science and art that is devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and
control of those environment factors or stresses arising in or from the workplace,
which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant
discomfort among worker or among the citizens of the community. It focuses on
environmental contaminants.
Environmental contaminants are any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological
substance or matter that has an adverse effect on air, water, soil, or living organisms.
TYPES OF CONTAMINATION
There are four categories of contamination in the food industry
Physical contamination
Chemical contamination

13. Microbiological contamination
Cross contamination
What is physical contamination(or foreign bodies)- Are objects such as hair, plant
stalks or pieces of plastic/metal that can occur as contaminants in food. It is a type
of contamination that is more common in food processing and substances.
What is chemical contamination-Refers to the addition or appearance of chemical
substances in inappropriate places, including the workplace, home, food and
environment.
What is biological contamination- It is the presence in the environment of living
organisms or agents derived by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and mammal and birds
antigens that can cause many health effects.
What is cross contamination- Is the transfer of bacteria or other microorganisms
from one substance to another.

14. HAZARD AND RISK
A hazard is any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on
something or someone.
A risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an
adverse health effect if exposed to a hazard.
The following elements are key in managing risks and hazard prevention;
Risk assessment
Job safety analysis
Safety audits
Work-site analysis
A risk assessment would look to identify environmental hazards and put
processes in place to mitigate the risk, while safety analysis will not. It is a process
that is used to look for potential hazards in a facility and created controls to help
mitigate them.

15. RISK MATRIX
The risk matrix below is also known as the risk assessment diagram which is used to
show the likelihood and the severity of risks in workplace. During risk
asessment
SEVERITYEVERERITY (IMPACT OR CONSEQUENCES)
1 Negligible 2 Minor 3 Moderate 4 Major 5 Extreme
LIKELIHOOD
5 Almost Certain MEDIUM HIGH HIGH VERY HIGH VERY HIGH
4 Likely MEDIUM MEDIUM HIGH HIGH VERY HIGH
3 Possible LOW MEDIUM MEDIUM HIGH HIGH
2 Unlikely LOW MEDIUM MEDIUM MEDIUM HIGH
1 Rare LOW LOW LOW MEDIUM MEDIUM

16. Green: color means the risks are well controlled, precautions are sufficient and
reliable.
Yellow: means the risk is acceptable but of concern. The combination of the
severity of the consequence and the likelihood indicates that although
improvements would be desirable, serious adverse effects are unlikely.
Orange: means the risk is unacceptable, remedial action is necessary.
Red: means the risk is unacceptable, remedial action is urgent; consider stopping
the work or task until the risk can be reduced.
Risk Assessment
The main purpose of risk assessment is the analysis of potential threats to the well
being of staff and others from the organization activities; establishing what
controls are required in order to either remove or reduce these threats to
acceptable levels.
The risk assessment should focus on the significant hazards. The ones with the
potential to cause real harm.

17. A risk assessment can be broke into 5 step:
1. Identify the hazards
2. Decides who might be harmed and how
3. Evaluate the risk and decide on precautions
4. Record your findings and implement them
5. Monitor and review
Design a risk assessment form
A rist assessment form is a hazard checklist. Ones completed it becomes a working
document for the health and safety within a department.

18. A job safety analysis looks at individual tasks. This can be done either as a
regular workplace safety task, or after an incident occurs. Before carrying out any
task, it is a requirement that a job safety analysis be done.
Work-site analysis- this is an essential procedure that helps in determining what
jobs and workstations are the sources of potential problems.
A Safety Audit
An Audit – assesses operational compliance with the company policy, procedures
and ongoing legislative requirements.
A safety audit is a general term used to describe an activity where a facility
gathers information about one or more aspects of the workplace in order to
evaluate the risk levels for health or safety issues. During this audit one or more
people will gather data related to the efficiency, reliability and effectiveness of
their health and safety systems.

19. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND RISK CONTROL

20. It is very important to always remember that, a reduction in injuries, accidents and
occupational illnesses lead to increased productivity, reduction in costs, reduction
in turnover, better employee moral, and an increase in profits. This is not only
beneficial to the employer and industry, but as well to the employee and
community at large.
When conducting a hazard analysis, you typically look for concerns in the following
areas:
 facilities,
 processes,
 environment,
 materials, and
 equipment.

21. Health and safety hazards in the workplace include those things that cause stress or are a potential
risk to a worker’s physical or emotional well being. In order to prevent injuries, it is important to
use the systematic approach to hazard analysis that includes the following 3 steps:
1. Identify
2. Evaluate
3. Control
Identify
In order to eliminate or reduce hazards, a company first needs to identify the problems and
concerns (hazards) that could cause worker injuries. Hazards are not always obvious; so in order
to identify the hazard a person must first be familiar with the poultry industry, their work area and
the recommended work practices.
Evaluate
Once hazards have been identified, they need to be evaluated for priority. It is not possible to fix
everything at once. The biggest concern may often be the hazards that are most serious – those
that could cause the most serious injuries or illnesses. There are times when the hazard of most
concern will be the one affecting the most people. Still other times, the hazard with the highest
priority is the easiest to get corrected because it can render the quickest results.
Control
The third step is to select the most appropriate and effective control measures for those particular
hazards.

23. Elimination
The best way to control a hazard is to eliminate it and remove the danger. This can
be done by changing a work process in a way that will get rid of a hazard; it could
be as simple as substituting a dull knife for a sharp knife; or removing the pallet
jack from a blocked walkway.
Substitution
The second most effective method is to substitute something else in its place that
would be
non-hazardous or less hazardous to workers. For example, a non-toxic (or less
toxic) chemical could be substituted for a hazardous one.
Engineering Controls
If a hazard cannot be eliminated or a safer substitute cannot be found, the next best
approach is
to use engineering controls to keep the hazard from reaching the worker. This could
include using adjustable stands; adding a machine guard; a technology to reduce
noise levels; using mechanical lifting devices; or using ventilation that helps remove
or reduce contaminants before they can get in the breathing zone of workers.

24. Administrative Controls (Training and Work Practices)
If engineering controls are not available, administrative controls should be the next
consideration. Administrative controls involve changes in workplace policies and procedures.
They can include such things as:
Warning alarms
Labeling systems
Job Rotation
Training
Personal Protective Equipment PPE
The use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is a way of controlling hazards by placing
protective equipment directly on workers' bodies. Examples of personal protective equipment
include: respirators, gloves, protective clothing, hard hats, goggles, and ear plugs.
Personal protective equipment is the least effective method for protecting workers from hazards.
PPE should be used in combination with more effective ways of hazard control. It should never be
used in place of other more effective hazard control methods.

25. OVERCONFIDENCE
Overconfidence bias is a tendency to hold a false and misleading assessment of
our skills, intellect, or talent. It is an egotistical belief that we are better than we
actually are. Overconfidence is behavior hazard if left unchecked.
RISK CONTROL PROCES
Risk control process is achieved through the following
1. Identifying hazards and risk factors that have the potential to cause harm.
(hazard identification).
2. Analyzing and evaluating the risks associated with the hazards. (risk analysis,
and risk evaluation).
3. Determining appropriate ways to eliminate the hazards, or control the risk if
the hazard cannot be eliminated. (risk control).
The overall goal of hazard identification is to find and record possible hazards that
may be present in your workplace. It may help to work as a team and include both
people familiar with the work area, as well as people who are not – this way you
have both the experienced and fresh eye to conduct the inspection.

26. When should hazard identification be done?
Hazard identification can be done:
During design and implementation
• Designing a new process or procedure
• Purchasing and installing new machinery
Before tasks are done
• Checking equipment or following processes
• Reviewing surroundings before each shift
While tasks are being done
• Be aware of changes, abnormal conditions, or sudden emissions
During inspections
• Formal, informal, supervisor, health and safety committee
After incidents
• Near misses or minor events
• Injuries

27. WORK OPERATION CATEGORIES AND SAFETY
There 3 main categories of work at the workplace;
1. Ground /surface operations and safety
2. Confined and underground operations and safety
3. Working at height operations and safety

28. NOTE, Safety is not about years of experience on a given job or task
but it is about observing and adhering to safety regulations at all times.
BEFORE YOU UNDERTAKE ANY TASK CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING;
Do you understand the task or the job you are given to do?
Are you competent enough to do it own your own or you need close
supervision?
Do you know and understand the safety of that operation or task?
Do you have the right tools for the tasks and are they in good
condition?
Are you physically and mentally fit for the task?
Can you identify the risks associated with the task?
Is the environment safe for you and the task?

29. Ground /surface operations and safety
Construction site works, repair workshops, shopping centers, open-pit mines and
airports are some of the open or surface operation areas. These places are to be
kept clean and organized every time.
The following elements are important to achieving a hazard free working are;
 Housekeeping
 Waste disposal
 Spills control
 Tools and equipment (housekeeping)
HOUSE KEEPING
A good housekeeping program plans and manages the orderly storage and
movement of materials from point of entry to exit. It includes a material flow plan to
ensure minimal handling. The plan also makes sure that work areas are not used as
storage areas by having workers move materials to and from work areas as needed.
Part of the plan could include investing in the extra bins more frequent disposal.

30. WASTE DISPOSAL
The regular collection, grading and sorting of scrap contributes to good
housekeeping practice in any working area. Open or confined space operations
must be done in clean and well arranged environment.
Waste bins must be kept clean and disinfected if necessary.
Water waste must be treated if necessary.
Water must have a clear drainage systems.
SPILLS CONTROL
Spills must be controlled and managed well. If spills are left an attended to
immediately they happen they can cause serious injuries to health or even death.
If you see a spill, do not start looking for the person who did. Barricade the area,
make sure there is complete zero access to the area until the area has been worked
on and it is safe.

31. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT (housekeeping)
Tool housekeeping is very important, whether in the tool room, on the rack, in the
yard, or on the bench. Tools require suitable fixtures with marked locations to
provide an orderly arrangement. Returning tools promptly after use reduces the
chances of harm of to the workforce. Machines or equipment must be inspected
regularly, cleaned and repaired successfully. All tools that damaged or worn must be
taken out of service.
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPROPER HOUSEKEEPING OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
 Flying objects from lawnmowers
 Scattered material offcuts from a grinder, e.g. wood, metal and plastics.
 Flying material from a grinder, e.g fire sparks.
 Careless equipment parking
 Scattered carts and pallets
 Naked electrical cables
 Uneven or unstable surfaces or floors

32. Confined and underground operations and safety
COFINED SPACES
A confined space is an enclosed or partially enclosed space not intended or
designed for continuous human occupancy with a restricted means of entry or exit.
Examples of confined spaces are;
 Pipes
 Tunnels
 Curves

33. These work spaces may or may not be large enough for an employee to enter and
perform the assigned responsibilities and they usually have limited exit options.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) uses the words
“permit-required confined space” to describe a specific confined space, meeting
one or more of the following characteristics:
 Hazardous (or potentially hazardous) atmosphere
 Potential to engulf worker
 Walls that converge inward
Floors that slope downward and taper into an area that could entrap or
suffocate entrant
 Contains any other recognized safety/health hazard (i.e. exposed live wires or
heat stress)
 The possibilities of the tunnel to collapse
 Are there moving equipment or electrical equipment
Whether you’re working in a tank, vessel, tunnel or manhole, there are certain
things to keep in mind.

34. Confined space entry basic rules
1. Plan how to enter and enter with easy
2. Plan how to come out and come out with easy
3. Plan how to work and work with easy
4. Make sure you have sufficient oxygen to avoid asphyxiation.
Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficiency supply of oxygen to the body that
arises from abnormal breathing. An example of asphyxia is choking.
5. Make sure everyone knows that you inside
6. Make you are permitted to enter and carry out the task
7. Do you know the structure layout of the confined space.
Underground tunnels have safety bays for personnel also known as refuge bays and
machines bays for earth moving machines, it is very important to know how these bays
are positioned, identified and used. Personnel must never take refuge in a machine bay.
All personnel working underground must carry an oxygen an oxygen supply equipment.

35. Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficiency supply of oxygen to the body
that arises from abnormal breathing. An example of asphyxia is choking.
Prepare oxygen supply and emergency rescue plans

36. Do you know the structure layout of the confined space

37. Confined Spaces: What to Do
• Know the Dangers – Make sure that you are well-informed of the specific risks
with each confined space job. There are severe hazards to be aware of such as
flooding, drowning, asphyxiation, toxic fumes, flammable air, lack of oxygen, etc.
Of course, these things happen under unfortunate circumstances. But, to accept
the job, you need to be informed of the risks that could occur.
• Ensure Capability – The person doing the job must be capable to complete it. If
they are healthy and properly trained and qualified in both the work needed and
the use of emergency equipment.
• Have a Plan – For every risk involved, come up with a plan to control these risks
for the specific work space. For example, if there is a confined work space with
reduced oxygen levels, make sure that your employer provides a breathing
apparatus or has the space ventilated before entering.

38. Confined Spaces: What NOT to Do
DON’T Ignore the Hazards – Unfortunately, accidents do happen. Just because a
confined space is safe one day doesn’t ensure its safe the following day. It’s
imperative to be aware of the risks involved.
DON’T Enter the Space Until It’s Safe – A confined space needs to be marked
safe before a worker enters the work area.
DON’T Forget about Emergency Arrangements – If someone is working in a
confined space, there needs to be a plan in place in order to know if they are
safe. And, if they are not safe, how will you get them out of the situation?
Safety is imperative. Many job sites come with dangers or risks to be aware of.
Do not take these lightly. Make sure that you are equipped with the proper gear,
knowledge and training to complete the job effectively and safely.

39. WORKING AT HEIGHT OPERATIONS
What is a Safety Harness?
A safety harness is a form of personal protective equipment (PPE) that is
designed to catch a person in case of falling while working at height.
In its most generic form, safety harnesses are setup by making a combination
between a stationary and a non stationary object. In practice, they are comprised
of rope, locking hardware, webbing and body wear.
Falls, even from low elevations can be disabling or even fatal
You cannot work at a height greater than 2meters if you are not protected by
guardrails or another type of fall protection system such a safety harness.

41. THE DO’S & DON’TS OF WORKING AT HEIGHTS
DOS
Do as much work as you can while you are on the ground.
Make sure that the employees can safely move to and from the area where they
are working at height.
Ensure that the equipment that you’re using for the job is strong, stable and
suitable enough to get the job done. Inspect and maintain them regularly.
Be careful when you are working near to a fragile surface.
Ensure that you are protected from falling objects.
Make preparations for emergency evacuations and rescues.
DON’TS
DON’T overload the ladders that they are working on, with equipment or
materials.
DON’T try to reach too far when you’re on a ladder or stepladder.
DON’T use ladders or stepladders to do work that entail heavy or strenuous
tasks. Only use them to do work that’s quick and light.

42.  DON’T allow incompetent workers do any work at height.
 DON’T lean or place the ladder on or fragile upper surfaces.
DON’T stay quiet when you feel someone is compromising their own safety or
the safety of others
Assess the job before it begins. Will I be working at height? Could I be seriously
hurt if I fell? Does the anchor point I will be attaching to have the capability to
support me if I fall?
When accessing ladders, 3 point contact is a must. Ensure that ladder is in good
condition, on a stable surface and that work is not conducted from a ladder that
involves reaching or leaning and have a right size safety harness on

43. LADDER SAFETY TRAINING
TRAINING OBJECTIVES
◾ The following will be discussed in this training:
◾ General construction of ladders
◾ Different types of ladders
◾ How to select a ladder for a specific area
◾ How to properly set up a ladder
◾ How to identify equipment damage and proper ladder functionality
◾ Proper ladder storage and maintenance
◾ Safe ladder setup locations on a worksite

44. GENERALLADDER CONTRUCTION
◾ Ladders can be constructed from a variety of materials including wood,metals,and reinforced plastics.
◾ They generally consist of two side rails and are joined at regular intervals by cross pieces called
“steps” or “rungs”
◾ In general,ladders have very few working parts.
◾ However, extension ladders usually have pulleys,ropes, and ladder locks
◾ In some cases,ladders maybe equipped with roof hooks or adjustablefeet to provide added stabilization

45. TYPES OF LADDERS
Ladders come in a wide variety of types designed for various jobs and will generally fit
into one of four categories
◾ Step ladder
◾ Straight ladder
◾ Extension ladder
◾ Fixed ladder

46. TYPES OF LADDERS
◾ Step ladders are self-supporting portable ladders that are non-adjustable in length
◾ They are commonly used in areas where items need to be reached but there is not an
accessible structure to provide ladder support

47. TYPES OF LADDERS
Straight ladders are portable ladders that are NOT self-supporting
◾ They are made of a single section that is not adjustable in length
◾ They are used to reach items on a structure that is providing the support for
the ladder

48. ESTENSION LADDERS
◾ Extension ladders are portable,NON self- supporting,and consist of two or more
sections that are adjustable in length
◾ Extension ladders are used like straight ladders,but allow for greater heights to be
reached

49. FIXED LADDERS
◾ Fixed ladders are straight ladders that are permanently fixed to a structure or piece of
equipment
◾ These ladders may have additional structures attached including rest platforms,cages,
or wells

50. HOW TO SELECT A LADDERS
Selecting the appropriate ladder for the job can greatly reduce the chance of a ladder related
accident. When selecting a ladder,considerations must include
◾ Height and pitch requirements
◾ Weight capacity
◾ Surface conditions
◾ Hazardous obstructions

51. PROPER SET UP
◾ When the purpose of astraight or extension ladder is to access an elevated landing,then selecting a
ladder of the precise height is one of the key factors in working safely
◾ The correct height of a ladder will be dictated by setting it up a the correct pitch
◾ It is required that a ladders height extend a minimum of 3 feet beyond the
upper support ofthe ladder

52. PROPPER SET UP
When using an extension ladders,the integrity of the ladders strength is based on whether
the ladder is used“fly out” or “fly in”
◾ “Fly out” means the extensible sections are placeAWAY from the structure that is
being ascended
◾ “Fly in” means the sections are placedTOWARD the structure
◾ Always confirm with the manufacturers instructions on correct ladder placement
Sections of extension ladders must overlap adjacent sections according to the following

53. PROPER SET UP
An approximation of correct ladder pitch can be achieved by
◾ 1) start by leaning the ladder against the elevated landing or upper part of the structure
you are going to ascend
◾ 2) with the top of the ladder leaning beyond the structures upper support pull the base
of the ladder out so that the pitch is roughly 75⁰
◾ 3) stand so you touch the bottom side rails of the toe of each shoe,stand straight and
reach your arms directly forward
◾ The palms of your hands should be touching the rungs level to the top of your
shoulders if the pitch is correct

54. PROPER SET UP
Another way to approximate the pitch of a ladder is to divide the height
of the structure being ascended by 4
◾ ¼ of the structures height is the distance the ladders base should be positioned
from the base of the structure
◾ For example,if a building is 16 feet high,then ¼ of that is 4 feet

55. ◾ Once the ladders pitch has been established,extend or retract the upper part of an the
extension ladder to no
less than 3 feet above the upper support of the ladder
If using a straight ladder,determine whether the ladders length can accommodate the 3
feet above the upper support, If it can’t then choose a more suitable ladder length
LADDER CAPACITY
◾ The ladders weight capacityis another key factor to consider when choosing a ladder
◾ Ladders can suddenly give way and break under excessive weight stress
◾ When evaluating the stress to be placed on a ladder,remember to factor in the weight of
the person climbing the ladder and any additional equipment including PPE and tool
belts
◾ If tool belts or equipment caused the weight capacity to be exceeded,use an
alternative means of transporting them such as a tow-line

56. Portable ladders are constructed under general classes,referred to as the“duty rating”
• Type IAA
Extra heavy duty………………………..…………………………………...375 lbs
• Type IA
Heavy duty……………………………………………………………….……300 lbs
• Type I
Heavy duty……………………………………………………………………… 250 lbs
• Type II
Medium duty……………………………………………………….…………225 lbs
• Type II
Light duty……………………………………………………………..………200 lbs

57. WORK AREA
Observing the surface condition where the ladder will be set up is an additional component to selecting
the appropriate ladder for the job.
◾ When asurface is uneven,use aladder that is equipped with proper attachments designed to level
the feet of the ladder
◾ If the surface is hard or smooth,choose a ladder with non- skid feet and take extra precautions to
secure the base
◾ NEVER use unstable materials to level a ladder

58. ◾ When selecting a ladder
,thoroughly inspect your job site for hazards
◾ Exposed electrical equipment or power lines – a non-conductive ladder would be best and maintain 10 feet of clearancefrom the hazard
INSPECTION
◾ If you suspect that a structure may not be stable enough to support a leaning straight ladder
,then chose a self-supporting step
ladder instead
◾ NEVER use a step ladder as a straight ladder by leaning it against a structure
◾ Step ladders are NOT designed to function in this manner

59. INSPECTION
◾ Once you have selected the correct ladder for the job,it is important to conduct a visual
and operational inspection before working with it
◾ It is your responsibility to make sure the ladder is fit for use before each job

60. INSPECTION
Ask yourself the following questions when inspecting a ladder
◾ Are the rungs or steps secured and free of oil,grease,and dirt?
◾ Is all the hardware secured and functioning correctly?
◾ If ropes are attached,are they in good condition?
◾ Are the support braces intact?
◾ Are there any signs of structural damage?
◾ If the ladder does not pass your inspection, remove the ladder from service and tag it
for maintenance to avoid the accidental use by co- workers
◾ If a ladder is damaged beyond repair,be sure to properly dispose of it

61. TRANSPORT
◾ While transferring your ladder to the job site,carry the ladder so that it is parallel to the
ground and balance the
weight by holding the side rail with your palm facing inward and at the middle of the
ladder
◾ For ladders exceeding 20 feet,always have two people carry the ladder
◾ If a ladder is transported on a vehicle,make sure it is properly secured at both ends

62. TIE OFF
◾ When working with a ladder longer than 25 feet,secure the ladder by bracing all4
points or tying off at the top
and bottom
◾ For shorter ladders,having a co-worker hold the ladder in place can provide extra
support
WARN OTHERS
If you are planning to use a ladder in a high traffic area,on blind corners,or in front of
doorways, take proper precautions to seal offthe area
Lock or brace the doors,post warning signs to prevent accidental collision

63. PRECAUTIONS
Because falls from ladders are a major source of fatalities and disabling injuries,it is very important to remember the following
rules when using ladder to access your work area
◾ Always face the ladder when climbing up or down
◾ Never climb the supportive cross bracing on the back of a step ladder
◾ Never use the top two rungs on step ladders
◾ Never use the top three rungs on straight or extension ladders
◾ Never use a ladder for a purpose for which it was not designed
◾ Never attempt to reposition a ladder while in use
◾ Do not reach beyond your arm’s normal extension
◾ Never allow more than one person on a ladder at a time
◾ Never attempt to strap or tie two ladders together
◾ Always keep three points of contact on the ladder

64. STORAGE
◾ Proper ladder care and storage is important to the structural integrity of the ladder
◾ Make sure that ladders are stored in areas that are clean,dry,and non-corrosive
◾ Use racks or brackets that can provide ample weight support to prevent ladders from
becoming damaged

65. SAFETY COLOUR CODING, SIGHN POSTS AND MARKINGS
Safety Colours according to the Occupation Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and
American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
The term safety colour is used to describe the standard use of colours for safety
purposes in the workplace. There are many standards in place concerning safety
colours from a variety of organizations including OSHA,ANSI and others.
Depending on the situation, each colour is assigned a different meaning, which
allows peoples to immediately determine what type safety hazard is in the area,
even if they are too far away to read any actual writing.
OSHARecommended Colour Coding
The first set of safety colours issued by OSHA covers the broad categories of
hazards that exist in facilities, and how people should be warned about them. There
are four main types of warning language used for this set of standards:

66. Danger- To alert people to a danger (which is used when there is an immediate
risk), OSHA says signs and other safety signals should be red or predominantly
red. Any lettering or symbols need to be a contrasting colour to ensure maximum
visibility.
Warning- The warning category is for when there is a risk, but it is not as severe
or immediate as when danger is used. The safety colour associated with warning is
orange or predominantly orange.
Caution- The category is for alerting people to a potential risk, and the colour
used is yellow or predominantly yellow.
Biological hazard- Biohazards dangers have gotten their own category because of
the unique risks they present. When using a safety about biohazards, the colour to
use is fluorescent orange or

67. WORKERS’ DUTIES AND RIGHTS
The cooperation of workers within the enterprise is vital for the prevention of
occupational accidents and diseases. The enterprise’s safety and health policy
should therefore encourage workers and their representatives to play this essential
role.
Workers should have adequate information on measures taken by the employer
to secure occupational safety and health practices and policies
Workers should undergo appropriate training in occupational health and safety
and have the opportunity to enquire into and be consulted by the employer on
all aspects of occupational safety and health associated with their work.
Take reasonable care for their own safety and that of other persons who may be
affected by their acts or omissions
Comply with instructions given for their own safety and health, and those of
others, and with safety and health procedures

68. EMPLOYEEAND EMPLOYER RESPONSIBILITIES
EMPLOYER RESPONSIBILITIES
 Because occupational hazards arise at the workplace, it is the responsibility of
employers to ensure that the working environment is safe and healthy. This means that
they must prevent, and protect workers from, occupational risks.
 Employers’ responsibility goes further, entailing knowledge of occupational hazards
and a commitment to ensure that management processes promote safety and health at
work. For example, an awareness of safety and health implications should guide
decisions on the choice of technology and on how work is organized.
 Workers need to know not only how to do their jobs, but also how to protect their lives
and health and those of their co-workers while working. Therefore it is the
responsibility of the employer to provide the necessary things such as; awareness,
effective tools or machinery, and personal protective equipment (PPE)
Where necessary, employers must be in a position to deal with accidents and
emergencies, including providing first-aid facilities and Record-keeping.

69. GOVERNMENT RESPONSIBILITY
Governments are responsible for drawing up occupational health and safety
policies and making sure that they are implemented. Policies will be reflected in
legislation, and legislation must be enforced.
The competent authority should issue and periodically review regulations or
codes of practice; instigate research to identify hazards and to find ways of
overcoming them; provide information and advice to employers and workers; and
take specific measures to avoid catastrophes where potential risks are high.
The competent authority should supervise and advise on the implementation of
a workers’ health surveillance system, which should be linked with programs to
prevent accident and disease and to Protect and promote workers’ health at both
enterprise and national levels.
NOTE; Legislation cannot cover all workplace risks, and it may also be advisable
to address occupational health and safety issues by means of collective
agreements reached between the social partners.

70. Duties of the Safety Auditor
 to carry out initial audits of a company’s safety programs at the
frequency determined by the enforcement agency;
to determine subsequent audit frequencies within the range
appropriate for the priority classification of the business;
to assess company operations for compliance with the Safety
Standards;
to carry out follow-up action to ensure that nonconformance have
been rectified; and
to report the outcomes of the audit to relevant authorities or
management
A risk assessment, A job safety analysis and A Safety Audit are very
important elements in risk management and hazard prevention.

71. OCCUPATIONAL PROBLEMS
Social and environmental health problems- They include increase in migration of both
skilled and unskilled workers from rural to urban centers causing overcrowding and
environmental pollution.
Poisonous - harmful substances- Other than gases, fumes can be present in industries
and cause problems. Chemicals used in industrial plant
Extreme temperature conditions which are:
 HEAT - Excessive exposure to heat can cause a range of heat-related illnesses, from heat
rash and heat cramps to heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
 COLD - Prolonged exposure to freezing or cold temperatures may cause serious
health problems such as trench foot, frostbite, and hypothermia
Excessive noise pollution: Noise is a form of energy that is transmitted through the air
as waves with varying pressure (Achalu, 2000, p. 28). Noise is measured in decibels.

72. CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES/PROBLEMS
Lack of provision of protective (safety) devices by the employers of
labor.
 Inadequate or nonuse of safety devices by the respective worker.
Non or lack of compliance to company rules can predispose the
worker to various illnesses.
Lack of compliance to safety regulations and policy by employee or
employer
 Poor personal and environmental or workplace hygiene
Lack of safety management system (SMS)
Undertrained staff
Lack of ergonomic management and control system

73. BENEFITS OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
The benefits of Occupational Health at work settings are as follows;
Improved worker's health.
Improved workers efficiency and productivity.
Lower sickness rates, lower accidents and injury rates.
Lower compensation for occupational illnesses and injuries.
Improved corporate image and industrial
relations.
The environment is kept safe from pollution and contaminations
Improved intra-personal and inter-personal relationship within the companies,
the family and in the community.

74. GENERALSAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 Your safety is your personal responsibility.
 Always follow the correct procedures.
 Never take shortcuts.
 Take responsibility and clean up if you made a mess.
 Clean and organize your workspace. Ensure a clear and easy route to emergency exits
and equipment.
 Be alert and awake on the job.
 Be attentive at all times to your work surroundings.
 When in doubt, contact your supervisor or manager for instruction, guidance, or
training.
 Never take risks when it comes to safety.
 Obey safety signs, stickers, and tags
 Always put on a well fitting personal protective equipment .

75. POULTRY SAFETY
Personnel working in the poultry industry are permanently exposed to hazards.
These have either a physical, chemical or biological nature. Proper management
is needed to avoid accidents and to keep the staff motivated. In all cases,
however, safety comes first.

76. The poultry industry has undergone phenomenal growth over the past 20 years, made possible
by the continuous dedication of those individuals working in different segments of the
industry, including farms, hatcheries, processing plants, and feed mills. These people are
subject to occupational and environmental hazards on a daily basis. Airborne exposure, injuries,
and zoonotic infections are amongst the main categories of health hazards. Farm employees,
especially new and untrained ones, are usually at a greater risk. Also, those who live near to
poultry farms, hatcheries, and processing plants can also be exposed to health hazards through
air, water, and soil.
Common health hazards
According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), health hazards in poultry working
environments are categorised as
 accidental
 physical
 chemical
 biological

77. Accidental
 Sprains and strains due to slip and fall while carrying heavy loads.
 Eye and skin irritation resulting from contact with disinfectants, vaccines and medicines.
 Burns from exposure to hot surfaces (e.g. beak-trimmers).
Physical
 Exposure to high levels of noise.
 Long-time exposure to heat and cold due to outdoor work.
 Musculo-skeletal problems resulting from lifting and moving of animals, feed bins (bags),
egg collection.
Chemical
Respiratory problems resulting from exposure to dust, which is composed of feathers,
dander, micro-organisms, etc.
Respiratory, skin, and eye diseases due to exposure to gases including NH3, H2S, CO2,
CO, and CH4.
Exposure to disinfectants, detergents, formaldehyde and pesticides.

78. Biological
Zoonotic infections. These diseases are transmitted between birds and
humans.
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Respiratory problems
Many studies have shown that poultry farmers have a greater risk of
respiratory problems than non-farmers. For example, results of a study showed
that North Carolina poultry farm workers experienced more chronic phlegm and
wheezing than non-farm workers. Another study of 22 North Carolina poultry
farms showed that poultry growers and catchers were exposed to high levels of
dust and ammonia. Each poultry house contains its own complex mixture of
dusts and gases. Nature of this mixture is dependent on numerous factors
including ventilation, type of poultry, feeding system, and waste management.
Dust and gas levels are usually highest in winter. Organic dust is the most
common respiratory contaminant. Organic dust is a combination of dusts with
bacteria or fungi (fungal spores).

79. Ammonia is an irritating gas present in poultry barns. The occupational threshold
for ammonia is generally 25 ppm. For short-term exposure (15 minutes), the
threshold is 35 ppm. An ammonia concentration of 300 ppm is immediately
dangerous to life. People who have worked in poultry barns for years often can
not detect levels below 50 ppm. Harmful gases in poultry houses are not
limited to ammonia. H2S, CO2, CO, CH4 and vapours (associated with
pesticides, disinfectants, and litter treatments) are also present and can cause
health problems.
Exposure to dusts and gases results in responses in the respiratory system. These
responses vary from one person to another, and may affect any part of the system.
Potential responses include acute or chronic bronchitis (the most common
reaction), increased airways reactivity, asthma, and chronic airway obstruction.

80. Poultry processing plants
A typical poultry processing plant can process tens of thousands of chickens
per day. Common complaints include warts, infections from bone splinters, and
rashes from the chlorine water (used to wash carcasses contaminated with
faeces). Employees have to do a lot of fast and repetitive movements. They
often suffer from injuries caused by the knives, saws and machinery. Cuts and
lacerations are continuous hazards for workers frequently handling knives.
Other injuries are also common. According to an Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) study, back injuries account for 40% of all poultry
processing plant injuries. Workers who involved in the cutting, pulling or picking
the meat from the bone use quick and repetitive motions that put pressure on
their wrists and hands. This situation makes these people vulnerable to
debilitating conditions of the nerves, muscles, and tendons. Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome is the most severe type of such disorders.

81. Zoonotic infections
Zoonotic diseases are transmitted from animals to humans and include
bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic diseases. Salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis,
chlamydiosis, tuberculosis, Newcastle Disease, and avian influenza are amongst
the most common zoonotic diseases transmitted from poultry to humans. Poultry
workers are at a greater risk of being affected by these diseases.
These and other health hazards in poultry commercial settings must be
addressed through improvement in the working environment. In order to
achieve this very important goal, both employers and employees are
responsible. Training of employees plays a vital role in reducing the occurrence
of these problems. Always know your work environment, the contaminants,
and the potential hazards. Safety must always come first!

82. What are Salmonella?
Salmonella are bacteria that make people sick. They were first discovered by an
American scientist named Dr. Daniel E. Salmon in 1885.
Salmonella infection
Most types of Salmonella cause an illness called salmonellosis. Some other types of
Salmonella cause typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever.
Most people with Salmonella infection have diarrhea, fever, and stomach cramps.
Symptoms usually begin six hours to six days after infection and last four to seven
days. However, some people do not develop symptoms for several weeks after
infection and others experience symptoms for several weeks.
Salmonella strains sometimes cause infection in urine, blood, bones, joints, or the
nervous system (spinal fluid and brain), and can cause severe disease.

83. Signs and symptoms in humans
Avian, swine and other zoonotic influenza virus infections in humans may cause
disease ranging from mild upper respiratory tract infection (fever and cough), early
sputum production and rapid progression to severe pneumonia, sepsis with shock,
acute respiratory distress syndrome and even death. Conjunctivitis, gastrointestinal
symptoms, encephalitis and encephalopathy have also been reported to varying
degrees depending on subtype.The majority of human cases of influenza A (H5N1)
and A(H7N9) virus infection have been associated with direct or indirect contact
with infected live or dead poultry. Controlling the disease in the animal source is
critical to decrease risk to humans.

84. • Minimize visitorsReport Sick Birds 1-866-536-7593Wash your hands before and
after working with poultryProvide disposable boot coversChange clothes upon
entering and exiting poultry areasClean and disinfect toolsLook for signs of
illnessReport sick birds immediately

85. Broilers do not perform to their genetic potential in a poor environment. The
quality of the in-house environment is highly dependent upon litter quality. The
litter environment is ideal for bacterial proliferation and ammonia production. The
two factors that influence litter conditions most are manure and moisture. The
manure portion is largely out of a grower’s control; however, growers can and must
control litter moisture.
Excess moisture in the litter increases the incidence of breast blisters, skin burns,
scabby areas, bruising, condemnations and downgrades. The wetter the litter, the
more likely it will promote the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria and molds. Wet
litter is also the primary cause of ammonia emissions, one of the most serious
performance and environmental factors affecting broiler production today.
Controlling litter moisture is the most important step in avoiding ammonia
problems.

86. GENERAL MACHINERY AND HANDY TOOLS SAFETY
What is a machine
A machine is the devise that comprises of the stationary and moving parts
combined together to generate, transform or utilize the mechanical energy.
All machines are made up of elements or parts and units. Each element or
component is a separate part of the machine, these elements in turn can be a
complete part or made up of several pieces which are joined together by riveting,
welding or bolts and nuts.
Categories of machines
Considering the various applications of machines, they are classified into four
main types, these are;
1. Machines generating mechanical energy. These machines are also called
prime movers, they convert some form of energy like heat, hydraulic, electrical
, etc into mechanical energy or work. E.g combustion engines are machines
were the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into heat energy which in
turn is converted into mechanical energy.

87. 2.Machines transforming mechanical energy. These machines are called
converting machines because they convert mechanical energy into other forms of
energy like electricity, hydraulic energy etc. E.g electric generator in which the
rotation of the shaft is converted into electrical energy and hydraulic pump in
which the rotation energy of rotors is converted into the hydraulic energy of the
fluid.
3.Machines utilizing mechanical energy. These machines receive mechanical
energy and utilize it for various applications. E.g lathe machines which utilizes the
mechanical energy to cut metals and washing machines which utilizes the rotation
of the rotor for washing the clothes.
4.Machines utilizing electrical energy. These machines receives electrical energy
and utilizes it for various applications. E.g a welding machine in which electrical
energy is converted into heat energy.
What is machine safety
These are safety guards and safe operations that are applied to both machinery
and operators who work with them. Examples are interlocks that stop a motor if a
person gets too close, guards that cover moving gears and blades and goggles and
protective clothing.

88. SAFETY GUARDS
A safety guard is a device that prevents the machine from being operated
unintentionally.

89. MACHINE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
Maintenance of machinery or equipment are intended to keep it in, or restore it
to, a state in which it can perform the required function well, protecting it from
failure or decline. Maintenance activities include:
inspection
replacement
testing
fault detection and repair
replacement of parts
Servicing
Equipment preventative maintenance is supposed to prevent safety hazards and
equipment malfunctions. A facility or machine that is well taken care of will be a
much safer environment for staff, tenants, and visitors. Some maintenance
procedures have inherent risks to which you never want to expose your staff.

90. Maintenance operations of equipment typically include both disassembly and
reassembly. This can be associated with a greater risk of human error, increasing the
accident risk.
Working under time pressure is also typical for equipment maintenance operations,
especially when shutdowns or high-priority repairs are involved.
As a result, there is a high risk of accidents related to machine maintenance activities.
Here are some of the most common accidents associated with machine maintenance:
 Crushing by machinery parts
 Injuries from unexpected machine start-up
 Oil spillage accidents
 Electrocution, electrical shocks or burns
 Explosions and fire.
 Trapped in articulation or pinch points
 Run over by un chocked or unlocked machine

91. GUIDELINES TO FOLLOW DURING MAINTENANCE.
Do you know the operation system of this machine.
It is a requirement that all the maintenance personnel are trained and are
competent enough to carry out maintenance operations assigned to them. They
must know how machines or tools operate ,the hazards associated with the
operation, the function of machine safety guard system and the safe operation
system of the machines
Don’t perform maintenance on working equipment unless you know it is safe.
If you plan to perform maintenance on facility equipment or appliances, always
decommission it before calling your maintenance staff.
Equipment such as conveyor belts and heavy machinery should never be active
while the maintenance staff is working on them. This can lead to severe injury,
especially if the maintenance worker is unaware that the system is in use. If you
call in a maintenance request, be sure to stop running the equipment.

92. Lock out Tagout (LOTO)
Remember to always lock out and tag out all machines under maintenance. This is
called zero access. Warning cards should be attached to machinery, with the date
and time of lock-out, as well as the name of the person authorized to remove the
lock. This way, the safety of the worker performing the maintenance on the
machine will not be jeopardized by another worker starting it up.
NOTE: IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW HOW TO SHUPDOWD THE MACHINE IN CASE OF AN EMERGIENCY

93. Machine safety guards
If possible, guards should be designed so as to allow minor maintenance on the
machines without removing them. If the guards must be removed or deactivated,
then lock-out procedures should be followed.
Appropriate machine training
Maintenance workers must be trained on how, and under which conditions,
safeguards may be removed.
Wear appropriate safety gear
Different maintenance tasks pose different safety risks. Full and good condition
PPE is very important. You can be a big help by providing eyewear, masks, or
special garments for your maintenance team or employees when they need to
work on facility equipment.

94. Don’t allow employees near maintenance work areas.
Employees should not be present while maintenance is working unless specifically
requested by the maintenance staff. The employee or manager that reported the
problem may be able to provide important information to the maintenance worker,
but they should not be close by while potentially hazardous maintenance work is
being performed.
Know where your emergency first aid supplies are located. Some accidents
cannot be prevented. In the event of an emergency, the facility manager and
employees should know where your first aid kit is located. Long-term injuries can
be minimized when treatment is provided immediately, even if it is basic such as
providing gauze to stop bleeding.
Have a no-tolerance policy for horseplay.
Horseplay is one of the most common causes of injuries in the workplace. This
can also distract maintenance workers who could be performing complex and
hazardous procedures on your equipment. Do not allow employees to “goof off”
in the office or in any place where heavy machinery is used.

95. A SAFETY COMMITTEE
A safety committee is an organizational group within a workplace with members
from management, the workforce as well as from all departments and staffs.
It is a joint worker-management team that assists the employer in creating and
maintaining a safe workplace.
The committee may be a formal arrangement with weekly or monthly
meetings. However, in smaller companies, it may be more effective to have all
staff attend a month or quarterly safety meeting. The safety committee will
share with management the responsibility for implementing the company safety
program.
Safety committee members are responsible for developing and reviewing safety
procedures and policies, investigating and reviewing accidents and
communicating safety issues or policies to company employees.

96. A SAFETY REPRESENTATIVE
A Health and Safety Representative is an employee who is nominated by fellow
non-managerial employees to work with the employer to determine and resolve
any health and safety issues in the workplace.
A Health and Safety Representative is responsible for handling health and safety
disputes by collaborating with the employer and health and safety officers.
The objective of a Health and Safety Representative is to reduce risk of injury or
illness in the workplace. Their duties include;
 Conducting investigations and inspections;
 Recording incidents, risks, and accidents;
 Performing monthly workplace assessments;
 Assisting in the implementation of using protective gear;
Assisting with changes to processes that affect health and safety,
and identifying hazardous materials or environments.

97. DUTIES OF A HEALTH AND SAFETY COMMITTEE
Make and assess statistics on accident records, ill health and sickness absence;
accident investigations and subsequent action;
inspections of the workplace by enforcing authorities, management or employee
health and safety representatives;
risk assessments;
health and safety training;
emergency procedures; and
changes in the workplace affecting the health, safety and welfare of employees.
 consider what precautions might be taken
recommend appropriate actions
monitor progress with implementing the health and safety interventions
Good practice
Think about minor incidents and address strategic issues

98. HOW TO SET UP YOUR H&S COMMITTEE
When setting up your Health and Safety Committee, you can choose to include all
employees from the beginning or make the initial arrangements yourself. As
consultation is about talking and listening to each other, ideally you should agree
arrangements with your employees from the start. It involves them early so gives
them a say in how the committee should run.
If you have union-appointed representatives, the union will have written to you to
let you know who they are and they may have requested that you set up a
committee.
If you do not have union-appointed representatives, or they are not representing
everyone, then you will have to arrange elections for your employees so they can
choose their representatives. If you want to involve your employees from the
beginning of the process, then you can set up a small joint working group to get
the committee started. They can help you with arrangements for organizing the
election.

99. Good practice for management representatives includes the following;
Involving a representative from the most senior level of management possible,
such as a board member, to show commitment and leadership.
Involve a variety of people- a health and safety committee made up of employee
representatives ...
Consult representatives - consult employee representatives to agree the
membership and size of a safety committee;
Represent all groups - keep the total size reasonably small, but ensure all
significant employee groups are represented;
Keep a balance - make sure employee representatives are not out-numbered by
management representatives;
Represent employees - consider agreeing to more employee representatives
rather than equal numbers of employee and management representatives as this
shows you are not dominating the committee.

100. Keep a single location - ensure a committee's work is related to a single
establishment not a collection of geographically different places; and
Avoid duplication - avoid duplicating committees for the same workplace, for
example to represent different levels of staff.
Resources employee representatives need as committee members
Employee health and safety representatives need to have:
time to prepare for meetings as management representatives would;
access to the same information for the purposes of the discussion at the
meetings; and
training that is reasonable in the circumstances to allow them to perform their
role, which includes attending health and safety committee meetings for union-
appointed representatives. Training for representatives can help them to
contribute equally to the committee's aims and purpose.
Being a member of the health and safety committee is part of a person's role as
a health and safety representative, so they should not suffer a loss of pay when
they attend meetings or carry out other activities on behalf of the committee.

101. LEGISLATION PART III
Occupational Health and Safety Act 36 of 2010. of the laws of zambia
HEALTH AND SAFETY COMMITTEES
11. Duty of employer to establish health and safety committee
An employer of ten or more persons at any workplace shall establish a health and
safety committee.
12. Composition of health and safety committee
(1)A health and safety committee established in accordance with section 11
shall—
(a) consist of an equal number of members, not less than two on each side,
representing the employer and the employees:
Provided that the representatives of the employees shall be chosen by the
employees or designated by a trade union; and
(b) be chaired by a person elected from amongst the employee representatives
or by the employer or the senior most member of management on an alternating
basis.

102. HEALTH AND SAFETY REPRESENTA
TIVES
The representatives of the employees on a health and safety committee shall elect from
amongst themselves a health and safety representative who shall coordinate health and
safety activities at their workplace.
Where there are only two representatives of the employees on the health and safety
committee, the employees whom they represent shall elect a health and safety
representative from the two representatives on the committee.
When setting up a dedicated health and safety committee, it is useful to agree
together on the following;
The principles of how it will work best so that it is clear for all employees and
members of the committee;
 Who the members will be;
 How often the committee will meet;
 what the committee will do;
 How you will make decisions and deal with disagreements; and
 what resources representatives will need as committee members

103. FIRE SAFETY
Fire is a rapid chemical reaction of oxidation with fuel accompanied by the
release of energy. The fire triangle
Fuel Oxygen
Heat
The fire triangle is useful for two reasons:
1. Fire prevention - if the three fire elements are kept apart fire cannot start.
2. Fire fighting - if one of the elements is removed the fire will go out.
Once a fire is started it will produce heat, a flame (the zone where oxygen and
flammable vapours are chemically combining in the combustion process) and
smoke. The exact composition of the smoke will vary but typically smoke is made
up of hot combustion gases such carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO).

104. Combustion Elements
For a fire to happen, the following elements are essential
 Oxygen, to sustain combustion
 Heat, to reach ignition temperature
 Fuel or combustible material
This results in a chemical chain reaction which states a fire. Removing any of these
elements will extinguish the fire.
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer occurs by
Direct Burning- the simplest method of fire spread, where a flame front moves
along or through the burning material. For example, if the corner of a piece of
paper catchers fire, the flame front will spread across the paper.

105. Conduction- transfer of heat within the material itself.
Convection- transfer of heat by the physical movement of hot masses of air.
Radiation- refers to the emission of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Ignition - is the process of initiating self-sustained combustion. The ignition
temperature of a substance is the minimum temperature to which it must be
heated for it to ignite.
Sources of Ignition
Electrically powered equipment- Arcing, damaged wiring, overheating of cables
due to excess loads, loose electrical connections, heat from electrical bulbs etc.
Open flames, hot surfaces, Sparks form welding operations, Chemical reaction
between incompatible chemicals, Smoking, Batteries.
Flash Point
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid produces enough vapour
to form an ignitable mixture. The lower the flash point a flammable liquid the
greater the hazard. In a flammable liquid fire, it is the vapours released from the
surfaces of the liquid that burns.

106. CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
On the basis of the type of fuel, fires are classified into the following:
Class A Fires - Solids combustible materials of organic nature such as, wood,
rubber, plastics, etc.
Class B Fires - Flammable liquids.
Class C Fires - flammable gasses under pressure, including liquefied gases.
Class D Fires - combustible metals, as magnesium, sodium, potassium, etc.
NOTE; Some classification of fire like the UK based may include Class F for high-
temperature fats and oils such as cooking fats. And the US based classification of
fire may also include Class K for kitchen fire.
.

107. Causes of Fire in The Workplace
Fires in workplace start for many different reasons. Some of the most common
causes of workplace fires are:
• Electrical equipment – faulty wiring, overloaded conductors, misused equipment
and the incorrect, unprofessional and inexperienced use of electrical equipment
in inappropriate environments.
• Deliberate ignition – many workplace fires are started deliberately. In some
cases, the workplace has been targeted, e.g. by a disgruntled employee or an
unhappy customer. In other cases youths playing with matches on an industrial
estate can also cause a fire.
• Hot work – any work involving the use of naked or open flames (e.g. a propane
torch or oxyacetylene cutting equipment), or which creates a significant ignition
source(e.g. arc-welding and grinding)
• Smoking – in particular, carelessly discarded smoking materials, such as cigarette
butts and matches.

108. • Cooking appliances, e.g. fat pans left unattended.
• Heating appliances, e.g. electrical fan heaters and space heaters, especially when
left unattended. Unsafe use and storage of flammable liquids and gases, e.g.
petrol, acetone and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Static sparks can be
generated, which could ignite a flammable vapor.
• Mechanical heat – generated by friction between moving parts, such as a motor
and its bearings, or cold work generating sparks.
• Chemical reactions – can also generate heat, e.g oxidizers ( rags soaked in oil and
solvents oxidize, heat is replaced and there is a risk of spontaneous combustion)
Consequences
Fires cause enormous damage to buildings and building contents. Items that are not
directly destroyed by the fire will often be severely affected by smoke damage.
These losses will usually be covered by insurance, although the loss of business and
premises are difficult to recover, leaving many people without jobs and a place of
work. People are also killed in case of fire in workplace not by direct flames only
but indirectly also by smoke inhalation. Serious burns may also results.
NOTE: Firefighting can cause pollution because of the large volumes of
contaminated water that run off the fire site into watercourses

109. Fire RiskAssessment
The three main reasons for assessing and managing fire risks are to:
1. Preventing harm to people – all employers have a moral duty to take appropriate
steps to ensure the health and safety of their employees and other people who
may be affected.
2. Comply with law – employers have legal obligations regarding fire safety and can
be penalized if they fail to meet those obligations.
3. Minimize the cost of fire in the workplace– most businesses that suffer a major
fire do not fully recover from its effects. If a factory or office burns down it may
never be rebuilt, costing not only the business, but also the jobs of workers based
there.
Carrying out a fire risk assessment allows a company to establish a suitable safety
management system and fire safety policy so it can continue to appreciate and
manage the risks from fire in the workplace, as well as assuring its business future
at the same time.

110. Factors to be considered in Fire Risk Assessment
Fire safety legislation and fire safety standards vary between countries, and from
region to region. Fire risk assessment is a legal requirement in many countries (e.g.
in the EU), However, some factors should be considered in any workplace, these
can best be described by applying risk assessment methods to fire safety.
There are many different methodologies for carrying out a fire risk assessment
but we will focus only on the five general factors with special emphasis on fire
safety.
Step 1: identify the fire hazards:
• Sources of fuel
• Sources of ignition
• Sources of oxygen
Step 2: identify the people who might be at risk:
• People in the premises
• Give special consideration to vulnerable people

111. Step 3: evaluation, identify and implement the fire precautions that are required:
 fire prevention
 prevention of the spread of smoke and flames
 fire detection and alarm
 firefighting equipment
 means of escape
 signs and notice
 Lighting
Step 4: recording findings, plan and train:
 Emergency plans
 Information and instruction
 Training
Step 5: review and revise the assessment as necessary
Extinguishing Fire
Fire can be extinguished by
 Cooling the fuel by removing heat (e.g. by applying water).
 Smothering by cutting off oxygen supply (e.g. by applying foam, carbon dioxide).

112. Inhibition by stopping the chain reaction (e.g. by applying dry chemical power).
Type of fire extinguishers
Water fire extinguisher for class A fires.
Water must not be used on fires involving electrical equipment. Water is used to
remove heat. And must also not be used on metal fires.
Dry chemical powder fire extinguisher for class B and C fire. The main bass
chemicals in DCP extinguishers are sodium bicarbonate and potassium
bicarbonate. These extinguishers put out fires by coating the fuel surface with
chemical powder.
They separate the fuel from the oxygen in the air and prevent vapor formation. The
powder also interrupts the chemical chain reaction of fire. The disadvantage is that
it leaves residues which are difficult to clean.
Foam fire extinguisher for class A and B fire. It has a blanketing effect excluding
oxygen from the surface of the fuel as it spreads on the fuel. Prevents vapor
formation on the burning liquid. It must not be used on electrical and metal fire.

113. Carbon dioxide fire extinguisher for class B and C fire. These puts out the fire
by displacing oxygen in the surrounding air and is not suitable for metal firs
but can be used on electrical/electronic equipment. It also does not leave
residues.
Special dry powder class D fire. These are on metallic fires. They form a crust
on metal surface excluding air and also absorbs heat from the metal.
Operating a Fire Extinguisher
Fire extinguisher can be used by anybody they are simple to use and only have a
few steps to follow:
1. Hold the fire extinguisher in upright position and pull out the pin
2. Squeeze the lever or press the plunger down hard.
3. Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of the fire and maintain a safe distance of
1 or 1.5 meters away from the fire.
4. Use a sweeping motion to allow discharge to be directed over the entire fire area.

115. Fighting a fire on a windy day may be a bit of a challenge. Nevertheless wind can also help
direct the discharged substance (water) from the extinguisher to the fire depending on the
position and distance of the fire fighter from the fire.
EMERGENCY RESPONSE AND FIRE SAFETY PROTECTION
 Activate the manual fire alarm call point.
Alert personnel nearby so that they can come to your help. Inform security
section.
 determine what is burning and use the right fire extinguishers always
Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape behind you before
attempting to use an extinguisher to put out a fire. Inform the fire station if you
feel you can not tackle the fire by extinguishers

116.  Determine what is burning, and use the right extinguisher always
 Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape behind you before attempting
to use an extinguisher to put out a fire.
 Inform the fire station if you feel you cannot tackle the fire by extinguishers
If are trapped in the building and cannot put the fire out with a fire extinguisher, do
not waste it out. Try to use it clear only your exit way but remember not wait until you
are trapped.
 When the fire alarm evacuates the building and assembles at the designated
assembly point.
 As you evacuate close the doors of the rooms, do not lock. This slows the spread of
smoke and fire. Also do not use lifts because they may fail, use stairs.
 If your clothes catch fire, stop, drop to the ground cover your face and roll back and
forth until the fire goes out. Do not run as it will make flame burn faster.
 Do not waste time looking for valuables to carry or start looking for clothes to up
on.
 Try to feel the door before opening, if the door is hot, try to use another door.
Smoke can make it very difficult to see. Therefore it is advised to stay low and crawl
out of the room in cases of too much smoke.