This document discusses three methods of educational psychology: introspection, observational method, and experimental method. It also discusses theories of moral and motor development in children. 1) Introspection involves self-observation but has limitations as results cannot be verified by others. The observational method observes behavior objectively but subjects may act unnaturally. The experimental method uses control groups to test hypotheses scientifically. 2) Moral development theories by Piaget and Kohlberg found children progress through stages from following rules to understand intentions and fairness. Motor development involves both fine and gross motor skills progressing from inner to outer body control.

1. Assignment No. 1
Q.1 Discuss different methods of educational psychology. Which method do you like the most
and why?
Method # 1. Introspection:
(a) The Method:
Introspection is one of the older methods and is peculiar to psychology. It means looking within,
looking into the working of our own minds and reporting what we find there. In order words, it is
a method of “self-observation “— observation by an individual of his own mental states directly
by directing attention towards a particular experience with a particular purpose.
This kind of self-observation, therefore, is not a vague, unsystematic or haphazard observation.
For example, a student has been asked to answer a question. He has to recall certain facts learned
by him to organise them in a particular manner and then to report what way he tried to recall, what
he thought and felt when trying to recall. Thus, it is a method in which the individual observes,
analyses and reports his own feelings, thoughts or all that passes in his mind during the course of
a mental act or experience.
(b) Advantages:
The method has many advantages. It enables us to understand one’s mental set at a certain time
and thus throws light on behaviour, which is reflective of mental experience. Mere objective and
direct observation of a person is not enough. We need to know what is going on in the mind of that
person. An artist is painting a picture. We observe him carefully and find that, he is sitting absorbed
in a certain posture, that he makes certain gestures or that he is mixing such and such colours.
But how he is doing it, what feelings and thoughts are passing his mind, we can learn only when
he introspects his own mind and reports. Then alone, we are in a position to understand fully his
act or behaviour of painting. Again, the method does not entail any expenses. There is no need for
any laboratory or apparatus. We obtain a direct knowledge of the mental experience of the
individual.
(c) Objections:
Several objections have been raised against this method by later psychologists i.e., after Titchner.
It is a purely private affair. The results of introspection are only subjective. Something is going on
in another person’s mind; it is not accessible to me or to you. Hence, it cannot be verified by other
observers. What cannot be verified or repeated by others lack scientific validity. The essence of
science is controlled observation under experimental conditions. Scientific results are always
verifiable. Hence, introspection is regarded as an unscientific method.
Another difficulty of the method is that it may destroy the very experience or process it aims at
studying. Our immediate memory can come to our rescue and we can recall the process to a large
extent. Thus introspection actually becomes retrospection. Besides, this method cannot be found
useful in studying children, animals, insane people and mental defective or those who are not good
at linguistic expression. This is a limitation of the method.
(d) Forms:

2. One of the forms of introspection that is used in educational psychology is the anecdotal method.
It consists of the recording of personal impressions about some aspect of pupil behaviour which
seems significant to the observer. According to Brown and Martin, “anecdotes are descriptive
accounts of episodes or occurrences in the daily life of the student.” These accounts are written
out of memory of the teacher or observer.
The method is open to criticism since the teacher or observer may have missed certain things or
may not remember accurately. He may also be influenced by suggestion.
The questionnaire is another form of the introspective method, which is used in the appraisal of
personal qualities, attitudes, opinions and beliefs of individuals. Galton used this method in his
study of individual differences and Stanley Hall in his study of childhood and adolescence.
A questionnaire is a series of printed or written questions which the individual is supposed to
answer. It is a useful device, which is frequently used by educational and vocational counsellors.
But the usefulness of this method depends on how specific and clear the instructions are. In framing
a questionnaire, one should be clear about the objectives in hand.
Method # 2. The Observational Method:
1. The Method:
It is one of the most popular of methods used in psychology for collection of data. This method is
also called the method of ‘objective observation’ as against introspection which is a method of
self-observation. The individual’s behaviour is observed by somebody other than that person
himself. The behaviour observed may be expressed in the form of bodily changes, bodily action,
gestures, facial expression and speech.
The psychologist may sit down and take notes of the behaviour of a subject under particular
conditions. The method was used widely by child psychologists who would prepare running
records of all that the child did during a certain period and in a certain situation. These observations
enabled them to make certain generalisations about human behaviour in general.
2. Difficulties:
Psychologists found that they could not keep pace with the speed of subjects’ behaviour and
thought as expressed by them. This problem was solved to a large extent by the introduction of
type-recording, photographic films or by employing a number of stenographers to record the
behaviour.
There was another problem besides the speed of behaviour. It was felt that the subject’s behaviour
can be affected by the presence of the psychologist in the room. The subject may become self-
conscious and may not behave naturally, which he would have done had been alone in the room.
This introduced the use of one-way screens and the system of observation-booths.
3. Precautions:
In order to have reliable and correct observations, there are certain precautions that should
be borne in mind:
Firstly, the observer must adopt an objective attitude. Our observations should be free from our
own biases, prejudices and result from sustained attention.

3. Secondly, it is necessary that before we form an estimate of an individual’s behaviour, we should
have made a number of observations of the same behaviour in similar conditions,
Thirdly, if needed. We should pool our observations with those made by others.
Method # 3. The Experimental Method:
The experimental method in psychology was made popular first by a German psychologist named
Wundt who opened the first psychological laboratory at Leipzing in 1879. The tremendous
progress which psychology has made during the last 50 years is due to the use of this method.
Experimental investigations has thrown light on different ways of memorisation, the effect of
different factors on learning, mental fatigue, image and imagination, span of attention, the effects
of giving children practice or coaching on intelligence tests, transfer of training, the role of
maturation in learning and the like.
Another important technique of experimentation in educational psychology is the use of control-
group method. Suppose we want to study the effect of a period of intellectual activity after
memorising a prose passage, on the amount of material remembered. We can have two groups of
students or subjects. They will be equated in age, intelligence socio-economic or cultural status
and also in their memorising ability.
The later will be ascertained through various tests and observations. Both these groups will be then
given the task of memorising a prose passage. The passage having been memorised, group ‘A’ will
be given some rest-pause for a certain period whereas group ‘B’ will be given some other
intellectual task, say, of working out some mathematical problems during this interval.
At the end of the interval, the two groups will be compared in regard to the amount of material
they can remember from the passage originally learned. Group ‘A’ is the control group and group
‘B’ is the experimental group. The comparison will either prove or disprove our hypothesis i.e.,
that the period of intellectual activity after the passage has been memorised improves or increases
the amount of material remembered.
The same technique could be used to prove or disprove the hypothesis that the administration of
glutamic acid, if given at a certain age and for a certain period, will increase the intelligence level
of mentally deficient children. Subjects constituting the control group do not receive the drug
whereas those of the experimental group do set it. Proving or disproving a hypothesis is technically
described as ‘testing’ a hypothesis. A hypothesis is formed on the basis of available general
knowledge insight and research inferences.
Q.2 Discuss the general characteristics of physical and motor development.
Children grow and develop rapidly in their first five years across the four main areas of
development. These areas are motor (physical), communication and language, cognitive, and
social and emotional. Early intervention services are delivered during this critical time of
development. Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones,
muscles and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child’s motor development falls
into two categories: fine motor and gross motor. Fine motor skills refer to small movements in the
hands, wrists, fingers, feet, toes, lips and tongue. Gross motor skills involve motor development
of muscles that enable babies to hold up their heads, sit and crawl, and eventually walk, run, jump
and skip. Typical motor skill development follows a predictable sequence. It starts from the inner

4. body, including the head, neck, arms and legs, and then moves to the outer body such as hands,
feet, fingers and toes. Motor development is important throughout a child’s early life, because
physical development is tied to other development areas. For example, if a child is able to crawl
or walk (gross motor skills), he/she can more easily explore their physical environment, which
affects cognitive development. Social and emotional development progresses when a child can
speak, eat and drink (fine motor skills). Parents and caregivers can help develop a child’s motor
skills at all ages. Some activities include:
 Placing your baby on his/her tummy, and helping him/her reach for a toy.
 Putting a toy on the couch for your child to stretch toward when a he/she starts to stand.
 Encouraging walking with a stroller your little one can push.
 Visiting playgrounds, where your child can climb, swing and slide.
Q.3 Discuss the importance of emotional development for students. What is your role as
teacher in emotional development among students?
As academics and testing become a larger part of children’s lives, social and emotional learning
has been put on the back burner, and teachers are seeing the ill effects of this change in their
classrooms, on playgrounds, and during specials or lunchtime. More and more, teachers are using
class time to promote social and emotional development. Studies show that social competence
helps a child gain more than academic competence. Children who are socially competent are better
adjusted and able to accept diversity, change and new forms of learning.
5 GOALS FOR SOCIAL COMPETENCE
The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning found that there are five
achievable social and emotional development goals for students.
 Self-awareness: the ability to reflect on one’s own feelings and thoughts.
 Self-control: the ability to control one’s thoughts and behavior.
 Social awareness: the ability to empathize, recognize social cues and be adaptable.
 Relationship skills: the ability to communicate, make friends, manage disagreements,
recognize peer pressure and cooperate.
 Responsible decision making: The ability to make healthy choices about one’s own behavior
while weighing consequences for others.
LEARNING MORE ABOUT SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
New research is constantly underway to determine how best to help kids succeed. One of the best
ways to access this new information and grow as a teacher is to enroll in a master’s degree in
special education program. The more you learn about how children acquire social and emotional
skills, the more you can help your students. One of the more difficult aspects of teaching these
skills is that they are not always measurable, so it is difficult to isolate data for districts when they
request information about time spent teaching these skills.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT APPS
One interesting way to teach social and emotional development is with technology. Educators are
finding that special education students tend to need the most practice in these skills, so using apps
to improve social and emotional skills can be a helpful way to bring common language and skill
development to both the classroom and the home. This helps parents smooth their children’s

5. transitions between home and school. The following apps, selected by special education teacher
Jayne Clare, have proven successful in the classroom and at home:
 Breathe, Think, And Do.
 Touch and Learn — Emotions.
 Avokiddo Emotions.
 Emotionary.
 GoNoodle.
 IF … The Emotional IQ Game.
 Stop, Breathe & Think.
Some may argue that using technology to support social and emotional needs is contradictory, but
there is a school of thought that proposes that kids also need to learn to collaborate through
technology. There are supportive online communities that can connect with children who feel like
an outsiders; therefore, learning to balance face-to-face interactions with digital ones may help
students succeed later as citizens. Social and emotional development skills may make the
difference between students who simply learn classroom material and students who connect
meaningfully to the outside world.
Q.4 Write notes on the following:
a) Moral development
Moral development is a concern for every parent. Teaching a child to distinguish right from wrong
and to behave accordingly is a goal of parenting. Moral development is a complex issue that—
since the beginning of human civilization—has been a topic of discussion among some of the
world's most distinguished psychologists, theologians, and culture theorists. It was not studied
scientifically until the late 1950s.
Piaget's theory of moral reasoning
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, explored how children developed moral reasoning. He rejected
the idea that children learn and internalize the rules and morals of society by being given the rules
and forced to adhere to them. Through his research on how children formed their judgments about
moral behavior, he recognized that children learn morality best by having to deal with others in
groups. He reasoned that there was a process by which children conform to society's norms of what
is right and wrong, and that the process was active rather than passive.
Piaget found two main differences in how children thought about moral behavior. Very young
children's thinking is based on how actions affected them or what the results of an action were. For
example, young children will say that when trying to reach a forbidden cookie jar, breaking 10
cups is worse than breaking one. They also recognize the sanctity of rules. For example, they
understand that they cannot make up new rules to a game; they have to play by what the rule book
says or what is commonly known to be the rules. Piaget called this "moral realism with objective
responsibility." It explains why young children are concerned with outcomes rather than intentions.
Older children look at motives behind actions rather than consequences of actions. They are also
able to examine rules, determining whether they are fair or not, and apply these rules and their
modifications to situations requiring negotiation, assuring that everyone affected by the rules is

6. treated fairly. Piaget felt that the best moral learning came from these cooperative decision-making
and problem-solving events. He also believed that children developed moral reasoning quickly and
at an early age.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, extended Piaget's work in cognitive reasoning
into adolescence and adulthood. He felt that moral development was a slow process and evolved
over time. Still, his six stages of moral development, drafted in 1958, mirrors Piaget's early model.
Kohlberg believed that individuals made progress by mastering each stage, one at a time. A person
could not skip stages. He also felt that the only way to encourage growth through these stages was
by discussion of moral dilemmas and by participation in consensus democracy within small
groups. Consensus democracy was rule by agreement of the group, not majority rule. This would
stimulate and broaden the thinking of children and adults, allowing them to progress from one
stage to another.
PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL The child at the first and most basic level, the preconvention
level, is concerned with avoiding punishment and getting needs met. This level has two stages and
applies to children up to 10 years of age.
Stage one is the Punishment-Obedience stage. Children obey rules because they are told to do so
by an authority figure (parent or teacher), and they fear punishment if they do not follow rules.
Children at this stage are not able to see someone else's side.
Stage two is the Individual, Instrumentation, and Exchange stage. Here, the behavior is governed
by moral reciprocity. The child will follow rules if there is a known benefit to him or her. Children
at this stage also mete out justice in an eye-for-an-eye manner or according to Golden Rule logic.
In other words, if one child hits another, the injured child will hit back. This is considered equitable
justice. Children in this stage are very concerned with what is fair.
Children will also make deals with each other and even adults. They will agree to behave in a
certain way for a payoff. "I'll do this, if you will do that." Sometimes, the payoff is in the knowledge
that behaving correctly is in the child's own best interest. They receive approval from authority
figures or admiration from peers, avoid blame, or behave in accordance with their concept of self.
They are just beginning to understand that others have their own needs and drives.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL This level broadens the scope of human wants and needs. Children
in this level are concerned about being accepted by others and living up to their expectations. This
stage begins around age 10 but lasts well into adulthood, and is the stage most adults remain at
throughout their lives.
Stage three, Interpersonal Conformity, is often called the "good boy/good girl" stage. Here,
children do the right thing because it is good for the family, peer group, team, school, or church.
They understand the concepts of trust, loyalty, and gratitude. They abide by the Golden Rule as it
applies to people around them every day. Morality is acting in accordance to what the social group
says is right and moral.
Stage four is the Law and Order, or Social System and Conscience stage. Children and adults at
this stage abide by the rules of the society in which they live. These laws and rules become the

7. backbone for all right and wrong actions. Children and adults feel compelled to do their duty and
show respect for authority. This is still moral behavior based on authority, but reflects a shift from
the social group to society at large.
POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL Some teenagers and adults move beyond conventional
morality and enter morality based on reason, examining the relative values and opinions of the
groups with which they interact. Few adults reach this stage.
Correct behavior is governed by the sixth stage, the Social Contract and Individual Rights stage.
Individuals in this stage understand that codes of conduct are relative to their social group. This
varies from culture to culture and subgroup to subgroup. With that in mind, the individual enters
into a contract with fellow human beings to treat them fairly and kindly and to respect authority
when it is equally moral and deserved. They also agree to obey laws and social rules of conduct
that promote respect for individuals and value the few universal moral values that they recognize.
Moral behavior and moral decisions are based on the greatest good for the greatest number.
Stage six is the Principled Conscience or the Universal/Ethical Principles stage. Here, individuals
examine the validity of society's laws and govern themselves by what they consider to be universal
moral principles, usually involving equal rights and respect. They obey laws and social rules that
fall in line with these universal principles, but not others they deem as aberrant. Adults here are
motivated by individual conscience that transcends cultural, religious, or social convention rules.
Kohlberg recognized this last stage but found so few people who lived by this concept of moral
behavior that he could not study it in detail.
b) Adolescence and development
Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. Children who are
entering adolescence are going through many changes. This article offers advice for adolescents
and parents to negotiate these changes. Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood
and adulthood. Children who are entering adolescence are going through many changes (physical,
intellectual, personality and social developmental). Adolescence begins at puberty, which now
occurs earlier, on average, than in the past. The end of adolescence is tied to social and emotional
factors and can be somewhat ambiguous.
There are three main physical changes that come with adolescence:
 The growth spurt (an early sign of maturation);
 Primary sex characteristics (changes in the organs directly related to reproduction);
 Secondary sex characteristics (bodily signs of sexual maturity that do not directly involve
reproductive organs)
Adolescent thinking is on a higher level than that of children. Children are only able to think
logically about the concrete, the here and now. Adolescents move beyond these limits and can
think in terms of what might be true, rather than just what they see is true. They are able to deal
with abstractions, test hypotheses and see infinite possibilities. Yet adolescents still often display
egocentric behaviors and attitudes. The following guidelines may help parents:

8.  Give your children your undivided attention when they want to talk. Don't read, watch
television or busy yourself with other tasks.
 Listen calmly and concentrate on hearing and understanding your children's point of view.
 Speak to your children as courteously and pleasantly as you would to a stranger. Your tone
of voice can set the tone of a conversation.
 Understand your children's feelings, even if you don't always approve of their behavior.
Try not to make judgments. Keep the door open on any subject. Be an "open/approachable"
parent.
 Avoid humiliating your children and laughing at what may seem to you to be naive or
foolish questions and statements.
 Encourage your children to "test" new ideas in conversation by not judging their ideas and
opinions, but instead by listening and then offering your own views as plainly and honestly
as possible. Love and mutual respect can coexist with differing points of view.
 Help your children build self-confidence by encouraging their participation in activities of
their choice (not yours).
 Make an effort to commend your children frequently and appropriately. Too often, we take
the good things for granted and focus on the bad, but everyone needs to be appreciated.
 Encourage your children to participate in family decision-making and to work out family
concerns together with you. Understand that your children need to challenge your opinions
and your ways of doing things to achieve the separation from you that's essential for their
own adult identity.
Q.5 what are general characteristics of personality? Also discuss the personality and children
adjustment problems. How teacher can play influential role in personality development of
students?
Childhood social and personality development emerges through the interaction of social
influences, biological maturation, and the child’s representations of the social world and the self.
This interaction is illustrated in a discussion of the influence of significant relationships, the
development of social understanding, the growth of personality, and the development of social and
emotional competence in childhood.
 Provide specific examples of how the interaction of social experience, biological
maturation, and the child’s representations of experience and the self-provide the basis for
growth in social and personality development.
 Describe the significant contributions of parent–child and peer relationships to the
development of social skills and personality in childhood.
 Explain how achievements in social understanding occur in childhood. Moreover, do
scientists believe that infants and young children are egocentric?
 Describe the association of temperament with personality development.

9.  Explain what “social and emotional competence“ is and provide some examples of how it
develops in childhood.
The answers that readily come to mind include the influences of parents, peers, temperament, a
moral compass, a strong sense of self, and sometimes critical life experiences such as parental
divorce. Social and personality development encompasses these and many other influences on the
growth of the person. In addition, it addresses questions that are at the heart of understanding how
we develop as unique people. How much are we products of nature or nurture? How enduring are
the influences of early experiences? The study of social and personality development offers
perspective on these and other issues, often by showing how complex and multifaceted are the
influences on developing children, and thus the intricate processes that have made you the person
you are today. Understanding social and personality development requires looking at children from
three perspectives that interact to shape development. The first is the social context in which each
child lives, especially the relationships that provide security, guidance, and knowledge. The second
is biological maturation that supports developing social and emotional competencies and underlies
temperamental individuality. The third is children’s developing representations of themselves and
the social world. Social and personality development is best understood as the continuous
interaction between these social, biological, and representational aspects of psychological
development.
This interaction can be observed in the development of the earliest relationships between infants
and their parents in the first year. Virtually all infants living in normal circumstances develop
strong emotional attachments to those who care for them. Psychologists believe that the
development of these attachments is as biologically natural as learning to walk and not simply a
byproduct of the parents’ provision of food or warmth. Rather, attachments have evolved in
humans because they promote children’s motivation to stay close to those who care for them and,
as a consequence, to benefit from the learning, security, guidance, warmth, and affirmation that
close relationships provide. Although nearly all infants develop emotional attachments to their
caregivers--parents, relatives, nannies-- their sense of security in those attachments varies. Infants
become securely attached when their parents respond sensitively to them, reinforcing the infants’
confidence that their parents will provide support when needed. Infants
become insecurely attached when care is inconsistent or neglectful; these infants tend to respond
avoidant, resistant, or in a disorganized manner. As children mature, parent-child relationships
naturally change. Preschool and grade-school children are more capable, have their own
preferences, and sometimes refuse or seek to compromise with parental expectations. This can
lead to greater parent-child conflict, and how conflict is managed by parents further shapes the
quality of parent-child relationships. In general, children develop greater competence and self-
confidence when parents have high (but reasonable) expectations for children’s behavior,
communicate well with them, are warm and responsive, and use reasoning (rather than coercion)
as preferred responses to children’s misbehavior. This kind of parenting style has been described
as authoritative (Baumrind, 2013). Authoritative parents are supportive and show interest in their
kids’ activities but are not overbearing and allow them to make constructive mistakes. By contrast,

10. some less-constructive parent-child relationships result from authoritarian, uninvolved, or
permissive parenting styles (see Table 1).