The document discusses several theories of moral development and motivation. It describes Lawrence Kohlberg's six stages of moral development from pre-conventional to post-conventional reasoning. These stages progress from egocentric to societal norms to autonomous principles. Several theories of motivation are also outlined, including instinct, drive reduction, arousal, humanistic, and psychoanalytic approaches. The document then discusses stress, defining it and outlining Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome of stress responses. It concludes with an overview of adaptive coping strategies for managing stress such as awareness, relaxation, meditation, social support, problem-solving, and music.

1. MORAL AND MOTIVATION
THEORY
M. M. ZOSI
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2. Developmental dimensions
 Psychosexual
 Psychosocial
 Cognitive
 Learning and behavior
 Moral
 Motivation and emotion
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3. MORAL DEVELOPMENT
(Lawrence Kohlberg)
 -An American psychologist partly
influenced by Piaget.
 -He proposed three levels of moral
development, each having two
stages:
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4. 1. Pre-Conventional level.
 Type of moral reasoning used by
children aged 4 and 10 years.
 Moral decisions tend to be
egocentric i.e. based on personal
interest.
 There are two stages in this level:
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5. a) Stage I: Punishment-Obedience
Orientation.
 Children assess for themselves how
good or bad they are on the basis of
rewards and punishments
administered by adults.
 Rules are perceived as being
absolute and ought to be observed,
irrespective of the circumstances.
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6. b) Stage II: Instrumental-Relativist
Orientation
 In the child’s view, what is right is
what makes one happy.
 The child refrains from being unfair
so that others will not be unfair to
him/her.
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7. 2. Conventional level
 Moral reasoning is more socio-
centric as it takes into account the
interests of others in a given society.
 There is a strong desire to conform
to social norms, as well as to
support and justify them.
 Majority of adolescents and adults
operate at this stage.
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8. c) Stage III: Good boy – Nice girl
Orientation.
 The child does not engage in
unacceptable behavior in order to
impress upon his/her parents/adults
that he/she is a good child.
 Children behave well in order to win
others’ approval rather than
because they believe in a given
moral principle.
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9. They also tend to conform to the
opinion of the majority, and
when making judgments take
into account the motive for a
given behavior
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10. d) Stage IV: Law and Order Orientation.
 The law serves as a guiding principle so
that a person will refuse to engage in
certain behavior as long as the law
forbids such behavior.
 It is understood that the law is to be
maintained at all costs.
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11.  The operation of society and
institutions is governed by
regulations or rules. If these are not
observed and obeyed, chaos is
likely to ensue.
 A person’s acceptance by society
depends on his/her conforming to its
laws.
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12. 3. Post – Conventional level
 Here one is neither egocentric nor
sociocentric, but autonomous in
his/her judgment.
 S/he maintains principles of justice
which transcend existing laws as
well as acceptable conventions if
these happen to be in conflict with
what is perceived to be man’s basic
rights and whatever is considered to
be in man’s best interests.
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13. e) Stage V: Social Contract
Orientation.
 Here, it is recognized that there are
situations in which laws may have to
be broken, and that where laws are
unfair, they must be altered.
 It is also held that rules should
involve mutual agreement and that
their purpose should be to protect
the rights of individuals.
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14. Society is viewed as the source
of law and a force that can
change the law if necessary.
A change in law is understood to
change the interpretation of
what is right and wrong.
At this stage, nothing is
considered absolute.
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15. f) Stage VI: Universal Ethical
Principle Orientation.
 Highest stage of moral development
proposed by Kohlberg and not many
people ever reach it.
 Here principles are based on human
life.
 It is held that the concept of justice
is beyond established order and
justice is universal.
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16.  Those operating at this stage have an
abiding interest in the equality of people,
the golden rule and human dignity, and
the universality of such principles.
 Life is held to take precedence over all
other human conventions.
 It is asserted that whatever situation a
person is faced with, s/he ought to
examine all the factors involved and
make a suitable decision.
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17. Theories of motivation
 Instinct theory
 Drive reduction theory
 Arousal theory
 Humanistic theory
 Psychoanalytic theory
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18. Theories of motivation
Instinct Theory
 Derived from our biological make-up.
 All creatures are born with specific
innate knowledge about how to survive
e.g reflexes (sucking, swallowing,
coughing, blinking. )
 Babies are born with a unique ability that
allows them to survive; they are born
with the ability to cry.
 Crying allows a human infant to survive.
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19.  Newborns can perform physical
movements to avoid pain; they will
turn their head if touched on their
cheek and search for a nipple
(rooting reflex); and they will grasp
an object that touches the palm of
their hands.
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20. Drive Reduction Theory
 According to Clark Hull (1943,
1952), humans have internal
biological needs which motivate us
to perform a certain way.
 These needs, or drives, are defined
by Hull as internal states of arousal
or tension which must be reduced.
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21. E.g. hunger or thirst, which
motivates us to eat.
According to this theory, we are
driven to reduce these drives so
that we may maintain a sense of
internal calmness.
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22. Arousal Theory
 It states that we are driven to maintain a
certain level of arousal in order to feel
comfortable.
 Arousal refers to a state of emotional,
intellectual, and physical activity.
 It is different from the drive reduction
theory,, because it doesn't rely on only a
reduction of tension, but a balanced
amount.
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23. Psychoanalytic Theory
 As part of this theory, he believed that
humans have only two basic drives: Eros
and Thanatos, or the Life and Death
drives.
 According to Psychoanalytic theory,
everything we do, every thought we
have, and every emotion we experience
has one of two goals: to help us survive
or to prevent our destruction.
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24.  This is similar to instinct theory, however,
Freud believed that the vast majority of
our knowledge about these drives is
buried in the unconscious part of the
mind.
 Psychoanalytic theory therefore argues
that we go to school because it will help
assure our survival in terms of improved
finances, more money for healthcare, or
even an improved ability to find a spouse
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25. Humanistic Theory
 According to this theory, humans
are driven to achieve their maximum
potential and will always do so
unless obstacles are placed in their
way.
 These obstacles include hunger,
thirst, financial problems, safety
issues, or anything else that takes
our focus away from maximum
psychological growth.
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26.  The best way to describe this theory is to
utilize the famous pyramid developed by
Abraham Maslow (1970) called the
Hierarchy of Needs.
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28. 1. Biological and Physiological
needs - air, food, drink, shelter,
warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from
elements, security, order, law,
stability, etc.
3. Love and belongingness needs -
friendship, intimacy, affection and
love, - from work group, family,
friends, romantic relationships
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29. 4.Esteem needs - self-esteem,
achievement, mastery,
independence, status, dominance,
prestige, managerial responsibility,
etc.
5. Self-Actualization needs -
realizing personal potential, self-
fulfillment, seeking personal growth
and peak experiences.
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30. STRESS AND COPING
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31. Stress
 Defined as the “thing” or “event” that
triggers the adaptive physiological
and psychological responses in an
individual.
 The event creates change in the life
pattern of the individual, requires
significant adjustment in lifestyle, and
taxes available personal resources
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32.  A second concept defines it as the
state manifested by a specific
syndrome which consists of all the
nonspecifically induced changes
within a biologic system.
 This syndrome of symptoms has
come to be known as the “fight or
flight” syndrome
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33.  Selye called this general reaction of the
body to stress the general adaptation
syndrome.
 He described three distinct stages of the
reaction:
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34.  Alarm Reaction Stage. During this
stage, the physiological responses of the
“fight or flight” syndrome are initiated.
 Stage of Resistance. The individual
uses the physiological responses of the
first stage as a defense in the attempt to
adapt to the stressor. If adaptation
occurs, the third stage is prevented or
delayed. Physiological symptoms may
disappear.
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35.  Stage of Exhaustion. This stage occurs
when there is a prolonged exposure to
the stressor to which the body has
become adjusted. The adaptive energy
is depleted, and the individual can no
longer draw from the resources for
adaptation described in the first two
stages. Diseases of adaptation (e.g.,
headaches, mental disorders, coronary
artery disease, ulcers, colitis) may occur.
Without intervention in some cases
even death, ensues
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36. Stress management
 Involves the use of coping strategies in
response to stressful situations.
 Coping strategies are adaptive when
they protect the individual from harm (or
additional harm) or strengthen the
individual’s ability to meet challenging
situations ,
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37. Adaptive Coping Strategies
Awareness
The initial step in managing stress is
awareness—to become aware of the
factors that create stress and the
feelings associated with a stressful
response.
As one becomes aware of stressors, he or
she can omit, avoid, or accept them.
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38.  Relaxation
Individuals experience relaxation in
different ways.
Some individuals relax by engaging in
large motor activities, such as sports,
jogging, and physical exercise.
Still others use techniques such as
breathing exercises and progressive
relaxation to relieve stress
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39.  Meditation
Practiced 20 minutes once or twice
daily, meditation has been shown to
produce a lasting reduction in blood
pressure and other stress-related
symptoms
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40.  Interpersonal Communication
With Caring Other
Talking the problem out” with an
individual who is empathetic to
interrupt escalation of the stress
response. Writing about one’s
feelings in a journal or diary can
also be therapeutic.
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41.  Problem Solving
An extremely adaptive coping
strategy is to view the situation
objectively or to seek assistance
from another individual to
accomplish this if the anxiety level is
too high to concentrate. After an
objective assessment of the
situation, the problem-
solving/decision-making model can
be instituted as follows:
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42.  Assess the facts of the situation.
 Formulate goals for resolution of the
stressful situation.
 Study the alternatives for dealing with
the situation.
 Determine the risks and benefits of each
alternative.
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43.  Select an alternative.
 Implement the alternative selected.
 Evaluate the outcome of the alternative
implemented.
 If the first choice is ineffective, select and
implement a second option
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44. Music
 Creating and listening to music stimulate
motivation, enjoyment, and relaxation.
Music can reduce depression and bring
about measurable changes in mood
and general activity
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45. END: QUESTIONS?
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