Michael Oakeshott was a 20th century British philosopher who made important contributions to conservative political thought. He criticized rationalism in politics and argued that political institutions evolve organically based on tradition and experience rather than abstract rational principles. Oakeshott believed politics should focus on practical knowledge rather than technical rules, and that the role of the state is to govern pragmatically and maintain stability rather than pursue ideological goals. He advocated for a minimalist state and pluralistic political order based on civil associations respecting tradition over rational designs for society.

1. Michael Oakeshott:
Limits to Politics
Swati Sucharita Nanda

2. What is Conservatism?
• Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that
seeks to maintain status quo and continuity.
• It has a dislike for radical change.
• They are most concerned with tradition, hierarchy, and
authority.
• It promotes traditional social institutions (religious, social,
political) in the context of culture and civilization.
• It has its origin in its position about the French revolution.
• Since then, it has developed more as an attitude than a
coherent philosophy.

3. What is Conservatism?
• Conservatives are not against progress but their
idea of progress is thus:
• Progress must be careful, tentative
• Progress must be respectful of past practices
• Progress must be pragmatic
• Progress must go with the grain of human nature
• They see ‘rationalism’ as their enemy
• Rationalism is about abstract principles not based
on human nature

4. What is Conservatism?
• It is a combination of liberalism and nationalism with
‘liberalism’ dominating the scene.
• They challenge the idea that society can be planned in
a rational way without regard to tradition and
historical experience.
• They support national institutions but not radical
nationalism
• They support individual liberty against state power
but not natural rights.
• They support spontaneous order but not anarchism
• They support community but not socialist collectivism

5. Key Conservative thinkers
•David Hume
•Edmund Burke
•Michael Oakeshott

6. David Hume: A Treatise of Human Nature
•Defended the then oligarchical regime in
Britain because it governed effectively
•Opposed rationalist ideas in politics –
human reason was powerless in political
sphere
•“Rules of justice” emerged naturally to
secure order amongst men, who were
creatures of limited benevolence.

7. Edmund Burke: ReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance
• Opposed rational ways of thinking about politics – emphasised
practical experience
• The most important quality of any society is order
• People have an obligation to obey the state so long as it
provides them with order
• Affairs of the state should be conducted on basis of measured
judgement and past experience – not abstract theories
• Traditions and institutions are key factors in the preservation
of order and continuity
• Change in society should only be undertaken when it becomes
clear that existing order is untenable.
• He emphasised dangers of mob rule (French revolution)
• Power should not simply be placed in the hands of those
unsuited to wielding it
• Revolutionary zeal is destructive of society and sets precedent
for future challenges to stability.

8. Michael Joseph Oakeshott
(1901 –1990)

9. Michael Oakeshott
• English philosopher
• A Political Science Professor at the London School
of Economics till 1968
• Known for his new interpretation and defence of
conservatism in the light of contemporary world
experience.
• Wrote about philosophy of history, philosophy of
religion, aesthetics, and philosophy of law.
• Widely regarded as one of the most important
conservative thinkers of the 20th century

10. Books by Oakeshott
•Rationalism in Politics (Essay; 1947)
• Experience and Its Modes (1933)
•Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays.
(1962)
• On Human Conduct (1975)
•Hobbes on Civil Association (1975)
• On History and Other Essays (1983)

11. Michael Oakeshott on rationalism
• According to Oakeshott, a rationalist stands for independence
of mind on all occasions, for thought free from obligation to
any authority, except authority of reason.
• A rationalist believes in the universality of problems and
solutions.
• Rationalism can be found in the 19th century utopian
socialism (Robert Owen), League of Nations, United Nations,
Universal Human Rights Declaration, Meritocracy in Civil
service debates.
• A rationalist rejects custom, habits and does not respect
traditions. As a conservative, Oakeshott dislikes this.
• He thinks that customs, traditions are specific to cultures
and that political institutions are also peculiar to particular
cultures. They have evolved over time and have the approval
of the customs and traditions.

12. Why was he so critical?
• In 1947, the UK was in the process of creating a
relatively comprehensive welfare state.
• Developing state interventionist economic
practices
• Nationalization of key industries
• State planning
• Oakeshott was primarily criticizing this.
• He called rationalism as the politics of the
inexperienced.
• Rationalism is the politics of those people who have
no contact with traditions, social habits and
practices.

13. Michael Oakeshott on Politics
• There are two kinds of knowledge
• Technical knowledge:
• based on rules;
• puts rules into practice;
• Rationalist see political institutions as technical
which should be based on rules.
• Practical Knowledge:
• Learn while you are working
• There are no fixed rules
• Institutions evolve on the basis of customs, habits
and social practices
• Rationalists reject technical knowledge.
• Oakeshott supports practical knowledge.

14. Michael Oakeshott on Politics
• Since 15th century, Europe has suffered 3 kinds of
political inexperiences:
• The new ruler
• The new ruling class
• The new political society
• A person who does not belong to a family with a
tradition of ruling would need a book to tell him
what to do/how to rule.
• Only traditions can give practical knowledge of
politics

15. Michael Oakeshott on Politics
• Politics should not have fixed goals
• Political action should not be based on fixed theories and
principles
• State should be governed on pragmatic basis
• Role of government is simply ‘to rule’ and not spread ideology.
• Likened state to a ‘ship afloat on a boundless sea’.
• According to him,
“In political activity…men sail a boundless and bottomless sea; there is
neither harbour for shelter nor floor for anchorage, neither starting place nor
appointed destination… The enterprise is to keep afloat on an even keel; the
sea is both friend and enemy; and the seamanship consists in using the
resources of a traditional manner of behaviour in order to make a friend of
every hostile occasion”.

16. On Politics
• Politics as ‘science’ is based on flawed understanding that political
problems can be solved through social engineering.
• Why flawed?
• This ignores (a) the immense complexity of human life, and (b) the
unpredictability and fallibility of human nature.
• Rationalists promote a rational design for humanity, visualising
some form of utopia
• Conservative pragmatists see such visions increasing human
suffering by offering unrealisable visions. The bid to realise these
dreams results in large scale social engineering.
• Rationalists believe in uniformity and perfection, which Oakeshott
traced back to Enlightenment idea that mankind can order the
world at will.
• This is a fatal conceit – the laws guiding human conduct cannot be
subject to human will

17. What kind of political order does he visualize?
• He considers political activity to be a critical activity.
• Political activity is neither the outcome of a contract nor a
manifestation of mutuality of purpose.
• It often takes the course of a conversation which evolves from
within. A conversation may start from anywhere and take any
directions. There is nothing fixed about the conversation.
• In his book On Human Conduct , he distinguishes between two
kinds of associations.
• Civil Association: moral association; respect for traditions, goes with the
inner urge of society; deliberation on civil good; civil penalty.
• Enterprise association: formed to serve a common purpose.
• Different societies tend to develop in different directions based on
which associations they adopt.
• Prefers a pluralistic order and a minimalist state (a caretaker state)

18. Oakeshott’s essay:
‘On being Conservative’
• Conservatism is not a creed or a doctrine but a disposition
(nature); not living based on principles to achieve a certain
goal.
• Gratitude for the present or what is, and not think about an
Utopia or even idealising the past.
• Being grounded and being conscious of oneself
• A man who is conscious of himself would find himself
accommodating too much in case of radical change.
• He would not be comfortable. He would lose the institutions
he was attached to.
• The Masai, when they were moved from their old country to
the present Masaid reserve in Kenya, took with them the
names of their hills and plains and rivers and gave them to the
hills and plains and rivers of the new country.

19. Criticism
• How can one consider reason/rationality as
negative?
• Traditions/customs/habits are not always
logical/positive/progressive/based on human
equality/dignity.
• Too idealistic when he talks about civil
associations.
• Oakeshott is a brilliant literary essayist but not a
rigorous political thinker.

20. Contributions
• He refused to make conservatism an ideology (a set
of political ideas with fixed principles and a goal). He
felt this would be like designing conservatism in line
with all other enlightenment ideologies.
• He tried to bring conservatism out of the trap of
being labelled as partisan ideology in post-war
times.
• Oakeshott was dismayed by the political extremism
that occurred in Europe during the 1930s
• Strongly disliked both Nazism and Marxism
• In doing so, Oakeshott showed that there can be
politics and political theory without ideologies.
• He has been a great influence on many leaders such
as Margaret Thatcher and John Gray