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![Guerra. Fellow native Texan José de
la Luz Sáenz kept a diary, which was published in 1933. In
recounting his wartime service, Sáenz
linked the American World War I “rhetoric of democracy” with
the Mexican struggle for civil rights.
On his return from the war, Sáenz translated his sacrifices and
those of the many other American
soldiers of Mexican descent fighting for democracy into a
movement for civil rights in Texas.
Source 55:
Under the authority granted to him by the [Food and Fuel
Control Act], Wilson appointed
Progressive reformer Herbert Hoover as head of the United
States Food Administration (USFA).
Hoover was given authority over the distribution, importation,
exportation, production, purchase,
and storing of food, and had a monumental task ahead of him.
Europe, which had been at war
since 1914, was on the brink of starvation. Fearing a similar
fate, Americans had already begun
hoarding food, and shortages, price inflation, and food riots
loomed on the horizon. A poor crop
season in 1916 and rising prices only worsened the situation and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-56-320.jpg)
![whatever ability we possessed.”
This anonymous black nurse pointedly denounced Jane A.
Delano, the chairman of the National
Committee of Red Cross Nursing, calling her “the dictator of
Red Cross destinies….” [and stated]
black nurses were “ready and willing to enter the government
service without compensation other
than our own satisfied consciences, but absolutely not through
the condescension of Miss Delano.”
It is evident that nurses not only made strategic use of black
newspapers, but also directly
challenged white authority by opening criticizing “dictator”
Delano. This nurse further used her
editorial platform to recommend that American black nurses
offer services to the British Red Cross
in Canada, “where the strain of bigotry never smirches,” and
which would receive them “with open
arms.”
It is important to mention that not all whites had an opportunity
to serve either, as poor and less
educated women were also denied access. Furthermore,
according to Susan Zeiger, even middle-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-62-320.jpg)
![of early 1917 (considered by a regular, not a special, session)
punished only espionage and
sabotage. The Espionage Act did not "categorically" reject, "by
legislature [sic] enactment, freedom
of expression for the first time in American history." Moreover,
"courageous" Senator Joseph I.
France could not have known about the British Defense of the
Realm Act of 1914 when he said that
the western world had seen "no such repressive a criminal
statute [the Espionage Bill] since the
dark ages." The membership of the Socialist party in 1917 was
between 80,000 and 100,000, not
"hundreds of thousands." To cite a final example, Murphy's
interpretation of the Adamson Act is,
to say the least, remarkable. "The historian, sixty years
removed," this book concludes, "observes
what was happening in the civil liberties area during World War
I with a sense of impatience and
annoyance." No one would dispute this explanation of the
author's approach and method.
7 Link, Arthur. (1981). The Journal of American History, 68(1),
165-166. doi:10.2307/1890974
Source 88:
Professor Arthur S. Link, the leading authority on Woodrow
Wilson, has now turned his attention to
Wilson as an international statesman in Wilson the Diplomatist.
His book is interpretative rather than](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-67-320.jpg)
![Master is upon us: "Ye have been faithful over a few things; I
will make you ruler over many things."
Mr. President and Senators, adopt the resolution offered, that
peace may quickly come and that we may begin our saving,
regenerating, and uplifting work.... Reject it, and the world,
history, and the American people will know where to forever fix
the awful responsibility for the consequences that will surely
follow such failure to do our manifest duty....[footnoteRef:1]
[1: “Policy Regarding the Philippines,” Congressional Record,
56th Congress, 1st Session (9 January 1900), 704-712. Senator
Albert Beveridge (R-Ind) before Congress.
]
Source 2: “the Strenuous Life”
In speaking to you, men of the greatest city of the West, men of
the State which gave to the country Lincoln and Grant, men who
pre-eminently and distinctly embody all that is most American
in the American character, I wish to preach, not the doctrine of
ignoble ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life, the life of
toil and effort, of labor and strife; to preach that highest form of
success which comes, not to the man who desires mere easy
peace, but to the man who does not shrink from danger, from
hardship, or from bitter toil, and who out of these wins the
splendid ultimate triumph.
A life of ignoble ease, a life of that peace which springs merely
from lack either of desire or of power to strive after great
things, is as little worthy of a nation as of an individual. I ask
only that what every self-respecting American demands from
himself and from his sons shall be demanded of the American
nation as a whole. Who among you would teach your boys that
ease, that peace, is to be the first consideration in their eyes-to
be the ultimate goal after which they strive? You men of
Chicago have made this city great, you men of Illinois have
done your share, and more than your share, in making America
great, because you neither preach nor practice such a doctrine.
You work yourselves, and you bring up your sons to work. If
you are rich and are worth your salt, you will teach your sons](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-87-320.jpg)
![that though they may have leisure, it is not to be spent in
idleness; for wisely used leisure merely means that those who
possess it, being free from the necessity of working for their
livelihood, are all the more bound to carry on some kind of non-
remunerative work in science, in letters, in art, in exploration,
in historical research-work of the type we most need in this
country, the successful carrying out of which reflects most
honor upon the nation.
If we are to be a really great people, we must strive in good
faith to play a great part in the world. We cannot avoid meeting
great issues. All that we can determine for ourselves is whether
we shall meet them well or ill. Last year we could not help
being brought face to face with the problem of war with Spain.
All we could decide was whether we should shrink like cowards
from the contest, or enter into it as beseemed a brave and high-
spirited people; and; once in, whether failure or success should
crown our banners. So it is now. We cannot avoid the
responsibilities that confront us in Hawaii, Cuba, Porto Rico,
and the Philippines. All we can decide is whether we shall meet
them in a way that will redound to the national credit, or
whether we shall make of our dealings with these new problems
a dark and shameful page in our history. To refuse to deal with
them at all merely amounts to dealing with them badly. We have
a given problem to solve. If we undertake the solution, there is,
of course, always danger that we may not solve it aright; but to
refuse to undertake the solution simply renders it certain that
we cannot possibly solve it aright.
“When men fear work or fear righteous war, when women fear
motherhood, they tremble on the brink of doom. If we stand
idly by, if we seek merely swollen, slothful ease and ignoble
peace, if we shrink from the hard contests where men must win
at hazard of their lives and at the risk of all they hold dear, then
the bolder and stronger peoples will pass you by, and will win
for themselves the domination of the world.”[footnoteRef:2] [2:
Roosevelt, Theodore. 1899. “The Strenuous Life.” In Theodore
Roosevelt, The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses. New](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-88-320.jpg)
![York: The Century Co. 1901.]
Source 3: U.S. Exports[footnoteRef:3] [3: Historical Statistics
of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington,
D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1960, pp. 550-551.]
U.S. Exports In Millions of Dollars / Year
China
Japan
Australia / Oceania
1900
15
29
41
1897
12
13
23
1894
6
4
12
1888
5
4
15
1875
1
2
5
Motivation and Purpose in Secondary Sources
Secondary sources may be designed to be informative,
analytical, or persuasive. Informative texts are straightforward:
they tell readers about a subject. Textbooks, reference books,
encyclopedias, travelogues are all examples of concise
informative sources. You may also find informative writing in](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-89-320.jpg)
![Increasingly frightened about their own prospects at home,
Hofstadter concluded, Americans were especially susceptible to
manipulation by the yellow press, which offered them the
prospect of overseas conquests as a cure for their own
frustrations. As in the humanitarian-impulse interpretation,
America’s unthinking decisions for war and empire were
aberrations that had more to do with popular influence on the
government than with concerns for overseas markets.
Historiography is the study of evolving scholarly interpretations
on a specific event. As scholars latch on to new evidence and
form new interpretations, old theories may be discredited.
When trying to understand an event, it is important to know how
leading scholars have shifted their thinking and why.
Sometimes old theories re-emerge as most valid.
….Closer to our own time, many historians have stressed the
important role of culture in shaping the past, even in the field of
foreign relations. These historians emphasize the ideological
rather than purely economic motives behind overseas expansion,
in particular the belief in the duty of the “Anglo-Saxon race” to
uplift “uncivilized” peoples. In Spreading the American Dream
(1982), for instance, Emily Rosenberg argued that assumptions
about the superiority of Anglo-Saxons and of American
political, religious, and economic institutions propelled
American expansion at the turn of the century. In Ideology and
U.S. Foreign Policy (1987), historian Michael Hunt likewise
argued that an ideological stew containing generous portions of
chauvinism and racism led many Americans to assume that they
could simply remake other societies. [footnoteRef:4] [4:
Hollitz, John. Thinking Through The Past: A Critical Thinking
Approach to U.S. History, Vol. 2, 4th Ed. (Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning), 2010, pg. 79-81.]
Source 5: Harvest of Empire
Victory in the Spanish-American War and the sudden
acquisition of overseas colonies made the nation uneasy at first.
True, Frederick Jackson Turner and others were espousing the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-93-320.jpg)
![When a financial crisis hit in 1905, and customs revenues
plummeted, the new government suspended debt payments,
which prompted several European powers to threaten
intervention to collect their money. President Roosevelt,
worried that sea lanes to his unfinished Panama Canal might be
imperiled by a European occupation, stepped in and offered to
consolidate the Dominican debt with a new loan from a New
York bank. Roosevelt insisted, however, that the Dominicans
turn over all customs revenues to a U.S.-appointed agent and
earmark the lion’s share of it for debt service. No longer would
they be able to raise government spending or increase taxes
without U.S. consent.
From that point on, the country was effectively a financial
protectorate. Once Roosevelt’s overseers arrived, they jump-
started additional legal reforms to benefit foreign investors. In
1906, for instance, they pressured the government to grant tax
exemptions to all sugar produced for export. In 1911, they
convinced it to permit the division of communally owned lands,
making it easier for sugar growers to enlarge their holdings.
Each time Dominican officials balked at some new demand from
Washington, Yankee warships appeared offshore to force their
submission.[footnoteRef:5] [5: Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of
Empire, A History of Latinos in America. (New York: Penguin
Books), 2000. Juan Gonzalez has won numerous journalism
awards and has been declared one of the most influential
Hispanics in the country. Born in Puerto Rico, Gonzalez
graduated from Columbia University and works as a columnist
with New York’s Daily News.]
Why do we study Motivation and Purpose?
There is an old cliche which states "those who forget the
past are doomed to repeat it." This is based on the idea that
history is cyclical -- that it goes through cycles of economic ups
and downs, peacetime to wartime, trends in fashion or
technology, etc. However, this also brings with it the belief that
these cycles are inevitable. People fall into the habit of saying
to themselves, "I cannot change this. We are just in the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-98-320.jpg)
![ourselves…..With equal reason, you might have said the same
thing some fifty or sixty years ago of Japan; and, little over a
hundred years ago, it was extremely questionable, when you,
also, were rebels against the English Government, if you could
govern yourselves. You obtained the opportunity, thanks to
political combinations and generous assistance at the critical
moment…..Give us the chance; treat us exactly as you
demanded to be treated at the hands of England, when you
rebelled against her autocratic methods. . .
…. Now, here is an unique spectacle-- the Filipinos fighting for
liberty, the American people fighting them to give them liberty.
. . . You declared war with Spain for the sake of Humanity. You
announced to the world that your programme was to set Cuba
free, in conformity with your constitutional principles. One of
your ablest officials gave it as his opinion that the Filipinos
were far more competent to govern themselves than the Cuban
people were.[footnoteRef:6] [6: Admiral George Dewey,
telegram to the Dept. of the Navy, 23 June 1898: “[T]his people
are far superior in their intelligence and more capable of self
government than the natives of Cuba, and I am familiar with
both races." ]
You entered into an alliance with our chiefs at Hong Kong and
at Singapore, and you promised us your aid and protection in
our attempt to form a government on the principles and after the
model of the government of the United States.
... In combination with our forces, you compelled Spain to
surrender..... Joy abounded in every heart, and all went
well...until…the Government at Washington….commenced by
ignoring all promises that had been made and….by ignoring the
Philippine people, their personality and rights, and treating
them as a common enemy—
In the face of the world you emblazon humanity and Liberty
upon your standard, while you cast political constitution to the
winds and attempt to trample down and exterminate a brave](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-100-320.jpg)
![people whose only crime is that they are fighting for their
liberty.[footnoteRef:7] [7: "Aguinaldo's Case Against the
United States, "North American Review, No. 514 (September
1899), pp. 425-432.]
Dissecting Images to Clarify Motivation
Historically, people have not been well educated. During
the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century,
illiteracy was widespread throughout the United States. In an
effort to increase political interest and participation among the
poorly educated, cartoons were produced. A few artists, such as
Thomas Nast, became well known for their ability to translate
political messages through art.
"A Bigger Job Than He Thought For. Uncle Sam—Behave,
you Fool! Darn Me, If I Ain’t Most Sorry I undertook to
Rescue You.” Personification of Emilio Aguinaldo and the
United States. c. 1899 [footnoteRef:8] [8: The image rights for
academic use are held by Granger Academic and are held in The
Granger Collection. The image is also the cover photo of
Donald Dewey’s The Art of Ill Will: The Story of American
Political Cartoons, New York University Press, 2008.]
"Before the United States intervened in behalf of these
oppressed peoples. Philippines-Spanish oppression. Hawaii-
Industrial slavery. Porto Rico, Cuba-Spanish yoke. Isthmus of
Panama-Quinine. After the United States had rescued them from
their oppression. Philippines-Philippine Assembly, Education,
Busine[ss] Prosperity. Hawaii-Prosperity. Porto Rico-
Prosperity. Cuba-Self gov't, prosperity. Panama Canal Zone-
Health." [footnoteRef:9] [9: John T. McCutcheon, “What Has
the United States Fought For,” in Chicago Tribune, 1914.
Reprinted in Mark C. Anderson’s “What’s to Be Done With
‘Em?: Images of Mexican Cultural Backwardness, Racial
Limitations and Moral Decrepitude in the United States Press
1913-1915,” Mexican Studies, Winter Vol. 14, No. 1]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-101-320.jpg)
![Above: Political cartoon satirizing American and European
imperialism made by J.S. Pughe in 1899. From the Library of
Congress.
Below: “A Quiet Little Game. I wonder what card Uncle Sam
has in his hand.”
Uncle Sam seated in restaurant looking at bill of fare containing
"Cuba steak," "Porto Rico pig," etc. and talking to waiter
"McKinley." [footnoteRef:10] [10: “Well, I Hardly Know
Which To Take First!” The Boston Globe, 1898 May 28.
Library of Congress.
]
Week 4: Nursing Theory (Orig Post Due Wednesday, Responses
Due Sunday)
44 unread replies.44 replies.
Purpose
The purpose of the graded collaborative discussions is to engage
faculty and students in an interactive dialogue to assist the
student in organizing, integrating, applying, and critically
appraising knowledge regarding advanced nursing practice.
Scholarly information obtained from credible sources as well as
professional communication are required. Application of
information to professional experiences promotes the analysis
and use of principles, knowledge, and information learned and
related to real-life professional situations. Meaningful dialogue
among faculty and students fosters the development of a
learning community as ideas, perspectives, and knowledge are
shared.
Activity Learning Outcomes
Through this discussion, the student will demonstrate the ability](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nursepractitionercorecompetenciescontentadelineati-221201192631-e31142e2/85/Nurse-Practitioner-Core-Competencies-Content-A-delineati-docx-102-320.jpg)
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Nurse Practitioner Core Competencies Content A delineati.docx
- 1. Nurse Practitioner CoreCompetencies Content A delineation of suggested content specific to the NP core competencies 2014 Updated May 2017* NP Core Competencies Content Work Group Anne Thomas (Chair), PhD, ANP-BC, GNP, FAANP M. Katherine Crabtree, DNSc, APN-BC, FAAN Kathleen Delaney, PhD, PMH-NP, FAAN Mary Anne Dumas, PhD, RN, FNP-BC, GNP-BC, FAANP, FAAN Ruth Kleinpell, PhD, RN, FAAN, FCCM Julie Marfell, DNP, APRN, FNP-BC, FAANP Donna Nativio, PhD, CRNP, FAAN, FAANP Kimberly Udlis, PhD, FNP-BC, APNP Andrea Wolf, DNP, CRNP Acknowledgments: NONPF also wishes to recognize members of the Curricular Leadership Committee who provided review and comment on
- 2. the draft document.The comments from the following people shaped the final document: Susan Buchholz, Holly Dileo, Kathy Dontje, Judith Haber, Ann Marie Hart, Kathleen Reeve, Susan Ruppert, Susan Schaffer, and Courtney Young. * The updates made to the 2014 Nurse Practitioner Core Competencies Content publication updates the competencies to align with the 2016 Adult-Gerontology Acute Care And Primary Care NP Competencies. NONPF - 1 Nurse Practitioner Core Competencies with Suggested Curriculum Content In the development of the nurse practitioner (NP) population- focused competencies, a task force had extensive discussions of competencies vs. content. The task force concluded that it would be beneficial to programs if some content could be included as exemplars of how to support curriculum development for addressing a competency. Within the 2013 edition of the NP population-focused competencies, the final column in
- 3. each population’s competencytable presents the respective competency work group’s ideas of relevant content. In 2014, NONPF convened a work group to identify the suggested curriculum content for the NP Core Competencies. This work group consisted of members of the task force that prepared the 2011 edition of the NP Core Competencies, as well as additional representation from the NONPF Board and Curricular Leadership Committee. A sub-group of the NONPF Curricular Leadership Committee completed a review of the draft content, and the work group incorporated the review feedback into the final document presented herein. Please see the cover page for a list of work group members and an acknowledgment of the reviewers. In 2016 the Adult-Gerontology Acute Care And Primary Care NP Competencies document was completed. This document was updated in May 2017 to align with the 2016 Adult-Gerontology Acute Care And Primary Care NP Competencies. The table that follows includes the NP Core Competencies and a list of suggested curriculum content. NONPF does not intend for the requirement of all of this content, nor is the content list comprehensive for all that a program would cover with population-focused competencies. The content
- 4. column reflects onlysuggestions for content relative to the core competencies. This document should be used in combination with the population- focused competencies. Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies Scientific Foundation Competencies 1. Critically analyzes data and evidence for improving advanced nursing practice. 2. Integrates knowledge from the humanities and sciences within the context of nursing science. Comparison of patient data sets with evidence-based standards to
- 5. improve care NONPF -2 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies 3. Translates research and other forms of knowledge to improve practice processes and outcomes. 4. Develops new practice approaches based on the integration of research, theory, and practice knowledge. Scientific foundations to practice, including, but not limited to, knowledge of advanced pathophysiology, pharmacology, physiology, genetics, and communication skills
- 6. Science from otherdisciplines relevant to health care Theories/conceptual frameworks/principles for practice: • Translational research that guides practice • Critical evaluation of research findings • Mid-range nursing theories and concepts to guide nursing practice • Evidence-based care • Physiologic • Communication • Developmental • Genetic • Behavior change • Population health Critical thinking development: • Evidence appraisal • Formulating a practice problem • Use of science-based theories and concepts to assess, enhance, and ameliorate health care delivery phenomena
- 7. • Use ofPICO questions to initiate research and quality improvement projects Qualitative and quantitative research and quality improvement methods Ethical and legal protection of human subjects NONPF - 3 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies Inquiry processes and practices related to health literacy, vulnerable populations, and culture Monitoring of health outcomes Leadership Competencies
- 8. 1. Assumes complexand advanced leadership roles to initiate and guide change. 2. Provides leadership to foster collaboration with multiple stakeholders (e.g. patients, community, integrated health care teams, and policy makers) to improve health care. 3. Demonstrates leadership that uses critical and reflective thinking. 4. Advocates for improved access, quality and cost effective health care. 5. Advances practice through the development and implementation of innovations incorporating principles of change. 6. Communicates practice knowledge effectively, both orally and in writing. 7. Participates in professional organizations and activities that
- 9. influence advanced practicenursing and/or health outcomes of a population focus. Content related to: • Crisis management and leadership • Stress management (for staff and patient/family) • Teams and teamwork, including team leadership, building effective teams, and nurturing team Leadership, change, and management theories with application to practice Political processes, political decision making processes, and health care advocacy Problem solving: • Influencing and negotiation • Conflict management • Strategic thinking • Managing change Business development: • High reliability organization principles
- 10. • Building andmaintaining effective teams • Project management concepts • Principles of effective decision making • Principles of change management • Civility • Principles of innovation Communications: • Scholarly writing, manuscript, and abstract preparation • Structuring and presenting persuasive arguments NONPF - 4 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core
- 11. competencies Peer review: • Publications •Presentations • Research • Practice. Leadership development: • Skills to influence decision-making bodies at the system, state, or national level • Interprofessional leadership • Assuming leadership positions in professional, political, or regulatory organizations • Structure and functions of editorial/board roles • Ethical and critical decision making, effective working relationships, and a systems-perspective Concepts of strategic planning process Leadership styles How to lead change in practice, manage practice changes • Monitoring implementation and fidelity
- 12. • Adaptation ofchange to patients, providers and organizational needs and resources • Interim feedback on achievements and efficiencies • Interpretation of data and articulating evidence Self-reflection of leadership style e.g., personal leadership strengths and weaknesses; working with diverse skills sets and diverse teams Quality Competencies 1. Uses best available evidence to continuously improve quality of clinical practice. Quality Safety Education in Nursing (QSEN) principles and content Evaluation of outcomes of care such as quality improvement projects with an evaluation component NONPF - 5 Competency
- 13. Area NP Core Competencies CurriculumContent to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies 2. Evaluates the relationships among access, cost, quality, and safety and their influence on health care. 3. Evaluates how organizational structure, care processes, financing, marketing, and policy decisions impact the quality of health care. 4. Applies skills in peer review to promote a culture of excellence. 5. Anticipates variations in practice and is proactive in implementing interventions to ensure quality Reflective practice Culture of safety
- 14. Quality improvement processesand practices Knowledge of quality improvement methods such as: • Plan-Do-Study Act • Six Sigma Cost benefit analysis Peer review process • Reviewer • Reviewee Collaborative team processes and practices Leadership skills for leading change for quality clinical practice Methods and measures of quality assurance during transitions of care Laws and rules to enhance quality such as • Meaningful use • Federal, state, and local quality data sources and indicators Practice Inquiry Competencies 1. Provides leadership in the translation of new knowledge
- 15. into practice. 2. Generatesknowledge from clinical practice to improve practice and patient outcomes. 3. Applies clinical investigative skills to improve health outcomes. 4. Leads practice inquiry, individually or in partnership with Leadership for role in practice improvement Clinical investigation strategies: • Identifying clinical practice problems • Appraising evidence for application to practice (e.g., design, methods, tools, analysis) • Literature search methods, including, but not limited to, the PICO Model to define a clinical questions and search for the best clinical evidence NONPF - 6 Competency Area
- 16. NP Core Competencies CurriculumContent to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies others. 5. Disseminates evidence from inquiry to diverse audiences using multiple modalities. 6. Analyzes clinical guidelines for individualized application into practice Use of electronic databases, such as electronic health records: • Assessing clinical practice • Reviewing patient technology • Exploring behaviors and risk factors • Using data to support evidence based changes in clinical management
- 17. • Template development Patientmanagement, including, but not limited to, discerning gaps in care and barriers to care needing resolution during patient encounters Project development and management: • Synthesis and translation/extrapolation of research to selected populations • Frameworks to guide projects • Quality improvement methods • Assessment of resources needed and available for projects • Competing priorities of patients, payers, providers, and suppliers • Data-based, needs assessment for project • Processes used in conducting projects based on current and best evidence, including evaluation of the application of evidence or inquiry to the population of concern • Evaluation of outcomes (for health status of patient and population as well as system outcomes) • Evaluation of why expected results were or were not attained and lessons learned
- 18. • Making recommendationsfor further work • Addressing issues of sustainability of project findings NONPF - 7 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies Dissemination of work and findings: • Abstract and manuscript writing to support the dissemination of project/research outcomes • Discussion of clinically meaningful results that may or may not be statistically significant • Presentation skill development with modification for different audiences
- 19. Integration of findings: •Results, methods, and tools, as appropriate, into care delivery • Identification of best practices • Opportunities for multidisciplinary team/inter-professional collaboration for patient care • Development and use of clinical guidelines • Use of clinical judgment to improve practice • Application of evidence to validate or change policy Evaluation of alternative care delivery models and treatments, including costs, cost benefits, and return on investment Institutional review board policies and processes Interprofessional research and scholarship exemplars and opportunities Technology and Information Literacy Competencies 1. Integrates appropriate technologies for knowledge management to improve health care. 2. Translates technical and scientific health information
- 20. appropriate for varioususers’ needs. Technology available in clinical practice: • Electronic resources that identify current evidenced-based care • Electronic resources that enhance patient safety • Technological care delivery systems • Telehealth • Information databases used by health care systems • Electronic communication with other professionals and patients • Encrypted and unencrypted technology NONPF - 8 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects
- 21. only suggested contentspecific to the core competencies 2.a Assesses the patient’s and caregiver’s educational needs to provide effective, personalized health care. 2.b Coaches the patient and caregiver for positive behavioral change. 3. Demonstrates information literacy skills in complex decision making. 4. Contributes to the design of clinical information systems that promote safe, quality and cost effective care. 5. Uses technology systems that capture data on variables for the evaluation of nursing care. • Electronic resources to support differential diagnosis, algorithmic thinking, and medical record review • Templates for documentation in nursing care • Use of electronic datasets to evaluate practice and improve quality, cost, and efficiency of care
- 22. Technology available tosupport education: • Standardized patient encounters • Electronic/computer based learning modules based on characteristics such as cultural literacy, educational level, and home assessment • Coaching/teaching resources adapted to population, health literacy, and age of patient learning styles, • Age-appropriate concepts and development of educational tools • Use of applications for references at point of care Using telehealth to provide care for the adult population, considering benefits, methods, differences, and regulatory issues. IT resources such as: • Informatics competencies from Technology Informatics Guiding Education Reform (TIGER) initiative • American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA) Use of electronic communication methods, including social media, with healthcare professionals, patients, families, and caregivers Compliance issues related to patient privacy with use of technology
- 23. Population-appropriate clinical indicatorsfor incorporation into information systems, such as electronic health records Use of technologies to monitor and evaluate clinical problems, e.g. • Blood pressure • Vital signs • Glucose • Weight NONPF - 9 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies Policy Competencies
- 24. 1. Demonstrates anunderstanding of the interdependence of policy and practice. 2. Advocates for ethical policies that promote access, equity, quality, and cost. 3. Analyzes ethical, legal, and social factors influencing policy development. 4. Contributes in the development of health policy. 5. Analyzes the implications of health policy across disciplines. 6. Evaluates the impact of globalization on health care policy development. 7. Advocates for policies for safe and healthy practice environments. Policy analysis process: • Political environment • Political feasibility
- 25. • Economic feasibility •Implementation strategy and planning • Outcomes evaluation at local, state, national, and international levels • Specific NP role for influencing health care agenda and patient advocacy Health policy and health care reform: • Federal budget • National health priorities • Methods for appropriation of funding • Vulnerable populations and needs • The relationship between the USPSTF guidelines and Affordable Care Act implementation Legislative and regulatory processes: • Origin of laws • Regulatory process • How to influence/impact passage of laws and their translation into regulation • Health care financing and third party reimbursement
- 26. Population health modeland its impact on policy planning Introduction of global issues: • Infections • Travel • Immigration • Disasters/terrorism • Access to health care NONPF - 10 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies Ethical issues in health care planning:
- 27. • Fairness • Equityand health disparities • Access and resource allocation • Health behavior • Social determinants of health Comparative health systems Proactive and responsive use of media Barriers to NP practice Legislative process and resources, e.g., Congress.gov Policy theories Examples of policy making at multiple levels and individual and collective contributions to shape policy Health Delivery System Competencies 1. Applies knowledge of organizational practices and complex systems to improve health care delivery. 2. Effects health care change using broad based skills
- 28. including negotiating, consensus-building,and partnering. 3. Minimizes risk to patients and providers at the individual and systems level. 4. Facilitates the development of health care systems that address the needs of culturally diverse populations, providers, and other stakeholders. 5. Evaluates the impact of health care delivery on patients, Organizational practices: • Organizational structure, tables of organization • Organizational decision making • Organizational theory • Principles of management Interprofessional collaborative partnerships Informatics/information systems: • Interpreting variations in outcomes • Use of data to improve practice • Use of collateral information
- 29. • Organizational deliverysubsystems, (e.g. electronic prescription writing-pharmacy software) NONPF - 11 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies providers, other stakeholders, and the environment. 6. Analyzes organizational structure, functions and resources to improve the delivery of care. 7. Collaborates in planning for transitions across the continuum of care.
- 30. Needs assessment ofpopulations served: • Socioeconomic and cultural factors • Unique population needs • System resources to meet population needs (e.g. use interpreters to facilitate communication) • Community resources/system outreach to community • Diversity among providers Financial issues: • Financial business principles • Health care system financing • Reimbursement systems • Resource management • Billing and coding principles Interprofessional/team competencies: • Communication (theory) • Collaboration
- 31. • Conflict resolution •Consultations/referrals • Team building • Values and ethics • Roles and responsibilities Safety and quality: • Cost-effective care • Legal/ethical issues • Research and quality improvement • Continuous quality improvement • Quality and Safety Education in Nursing Transitional care: NONPF - 12 Competency Area NP Core Competencies
- 32. Curriculum Content toSupport Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies • Navigating transitions across health care settings • Coordination of services Planning, delivering and/or evaluating models of care: • Models of planned change • Process and evaluation design implementation • Evaluation models • Process of proposing changes in practice Legislative and regulatory issues: • Relevant and current issues (e.g., Accountable Care Act implementation) • Process of health care legislation • Scope and standards of practice • Cultural competence • Theories of vulnerability
- 33. • Social determinantsof health Policy and advocacy: • Reducing environmental health risks • Implications of health policy • Variations in policy Ethics Competencies 1. Integrates ethical principles in decision making. 2. Evaluates the ethical consequences of decisions. 3. Applies ethically sound solutions to complex issues related to individuals, populations and systems of care. Ethics in decision making: • Ethical considerations in decision making in clinical practice • Applications of ethical principles in policy making and in care delivery • Sources of information to facilitate ethical decision making
- 34. - theories ofethical decision making - ethics committee - genetic counseling - clinical research - legal statutes - cultural sensitivity - scope of practice NONPF - 13 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies Evaluation of ethical decisions: • Methods of evaluating outcomes (long-term and short-term) • Debriefing and assessment of outcomes • Ethical frameworks.
- 35. Population-specific complex ethicalissues occurring in clinical practice System-specific resources to implement ethical decisions (e.g. hospice care, palliative care) Spiritual resources for patients and families (e.g., on site and media based) Independent Practice Competencies 1. Functions as a licensed independent practitioner. 2. Demonstrates the highest level of accountability for professional practice. 3. Practices independently managing previously diagnosed and undiagnosed patients. 3.a Provides the full spectrum of health care services to include health promotion, disease prevention, health protection, anticipatory guidance, counseling, disease management, palliative, and end-of-life care. 3.b Uses advanced health assessment skills to differentiate
- 36. between normal, variationsof normal and abnormal findings. 3.c Employs screening and diagnostic strategies in the development of diagnoses. 3.d Prescribes medications within scope of practice. 3.e Manages the health/illness status of patients and families over time. 4. Provides patient-centered care recognizing cultural Clinical decision making based on evidence and patient/provider partnership Current and emerging professional standards Novice to expert continuum of clinical practice Political, policy and regulatory issues regarding licensure, national certification, and scope of practice. Leadership approaches for employment contract negotiation, networking, and advancing professional standards and roles Application of select sciences to practice:
- 37. • Pharmacology • Physiology •Pathophysiology Specific areas of assessment, including but not limited to: • Physical • Psychosocial • Developmental • Family • Psychiatric mental health NONPF - 14 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies
- 38. diversity and thepatient or designee as a full partner in decision-making. 4.a Works to establish a relationship with the patient characterized by mutual respect, empathy, and collaboration. 4.b Creates a climate of patient- centered care to include confidentiality, privacy, comfort, emotional support, mutual trust, and respect. 4.c Incorporates the patient’s cultural and spiritual preferences, values, and beliefs into health care. duplicate. 4.d Preserves the patient’s control over decision making by negotiating a mutually acceptable plan of care. 4e. Develops strategies to prevent one’s own personal biases from interfering with delivery of quality care. 4f. Addresses cultural, spiritual, and ethnic influences that potentially create conflict among individuals, families, staff and caregivers. 5. Educates professional and lay caregivers to provide culturally and spiritually sensitive, appropriate care
- 39. 6. Collaborates withboth professional and other caregivers to achieve optimal care outcomes. 7. Coordinates transitional care services in and across care settings. 8. Participates in the development, use, and evaluation of professional standards and evidence-based care. • Oral health Screenings Diagnostics (tests, labs) Specific procedures Health promotion, prevention, and disease management Pharmacology and complementary alternative therapies Provider-patient relationship: • Role of culture in patient-centered care • Contracting a management plan with patient and/or family • Culture of trust in interpersonal relationship w/patient and/or families
- 40. Business of practice: •Legal, business, and ethical issues • How to set up, finance and evaluate a practice , • Writing a business plan Cultural issues Concepts of life-long learning NONPF - 15 Competency Area NP Core Competencies Curriculum Content to Support Competencies Neither required nor comprehensive, this list reflects only suggested content specific to the core competencies
- 41. Types of SecondarySources In previous studies we examined textbooks and journals, comparing narrative and argumentative formats. This section engages students in a deeper understanding of the study of scholarly arguments, and will introduce the usefulness of source reviews and critiques. Why are there differences in interpretation? Historians differ in their interpretation because their personal knowledge is informed by particular sources, which may not be the same sources referenced by another scholar. Historians also differ in their views because they become invested in interpreting history through a particular perspective. For instance, scholars with a background in economics may interpret events primarily through an economic lens, so they would be considered economic historians. Historians with a background in military may interpret events primarily through a military perspective, although military historians also have a
- 42. strong understanding ofgeography and so their interpretations may overlap with geographical, medical, or cultural discussions. Some historians prefer to understand events solely through the perspective of the individuals participating in those events, which would qualify them as hagiographers. These historians are less concerned with the minutia and instead are preoccupied with understanding the worldview of a particular historical figure. Hagiographers seek to pinpoint what motivates the figure, what inspires them, what they aspire to achieve, how they function in the world and how they understand their own existence. Historians who give preference to culture are considered ethnohistorians. Classification of historians also includes labor historians, political historians, and gender historians. It is not uncommon for historians to provide multiple historical interpretations with convincing evidence, especially on popularly studied events with a high number of participants, e.g. World War I. Students engaging in research should not be overwhelmed by the high number of interpretations. Evaluate each interpretation, identify the evidence supplied and the credibility of that evidence, and then determine which interpretations are most convincing. Study the following
- 43. source samples andtest your ability to identify the historian’s classification. Source 11: The Knoxville Journal-Tribune was the first of the two papers to report on the influenza outbreak. A story of national scope appeared on page five of its 9/12/1918 edition in which it was reported that several soldiers had become ill with “flu like symptoms” at an army training facility near Boston, Massachusetts. The mention that the illness may be ‘war related” was also included in this story. 1 Heinrich, Roger. “A Small Town Newspaper and a Metropolitan Newspaper Report on a Deadly Virus: A Content Analysis of the Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918,” Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol. 4, Issue 1, 2011. Heinrich is an Associate Professor at Middle Tennessee State University. SECONDARY SOURCES: FIELDS OF STUDY, SCHOLARLY REVIEWS, HISTORIOGRAPHY AND WORLD VIEWS The New York Times’ first story ran on page 14 of its 9/15/1918 edition. The story was of regional
- 44. scope and includeda quote from a government official concerning the status of the ill soldiers near Boston. The story also included the fact that a number of the soldiers had died and that several were in “grave” condition. The scope of the stories in both newspapers was nearly identical, with The New York Times running five more regional stories than the Knoxville Journal-Tribune. The fact that the Times was more regionally distributed than the Journal Tribune may account for this. Both papers ran a similar number of local stories and national stories. It was the metropolitan paper that speculated most often about a probable cause of the influenza outbreak. In one of its early stories (9/19/1918) mention was made that perhaps the virus was, “brought to these shores by German agents, intent on spreading biological warfare.” The metropolitan paper also suggested, in two separate stories that only “God” knew how the illness might have begun. Government officials were by far the most quoted sources,
- 45. appearing a totalof 38 times in the Times and 34 times in the Journal-Tribune. These government officials served in capacities ranging from the surgeon general to senators and military officers. The Journal-Tribune ran twice as many stories as did the Times with doctors as the main source of information. A hospital spokesperson was quoted twice in the Journal-Tribune and only once in the Times leading to the conclusion that doctors were simply too busy treating the afflicted to take time out for interviews. Story location was widely dispersed throughout both newspapers. The Journal-Tribune ran stories three times on its front page; 38 times between pages 2 and 10; and twice between pages 18 and 26. The Times ran a total of three front page stories; 17 between pages 2 and 10; 15 between pages 10 and 18; and 10 between pages 18-16. Stories that were first reported about the influenza epidemic tended to be further inside the papers in the first few days of the epidemic reaching the United States and moved closer to the front page as the influenza began its spread. The fact that The Times typically contained more pages per day than the Journal-Tribune
- 46. would account forthe number of stories appearing after page 18 in The Times. The Times was more likely to print the names of those either ill with the influenza or having succumbed to it, doing so in 13 stories. The Journal-Tribune listed names eight times. Both newspapers began printing daily death tolls almost from the onset of the epidemic’s detection in the U.S. The Times reported number of deaths a total of 27 times and the Journal- Tribune reported number of deaths 18 times. These “death tolls” normally took the form of numbers of dead locally and numbers of dead nationally. Source 22: …However, the important point is not whether Wilson acted wisely or foolishly; it is the way in which his preparations for the peace conference predetermined the shape of the battle over the treaty that would be signed. By appealing for the election of a Democratic Congress on the ground that a Republican victory would imply a repudiation of his leadership
- 47. in foreign affairs,and by appointing a peace commission composed with one unimportant exception of Democrats, Wilson made a partisan division on the issues of peace inevitable. In other words, he made it certain that Republicans would oppose and Democrats would support whatever treaty he might help to write. Moreover, by first ignoring the Senate in his appointment of the commissioners, and then by going himself to Paris, Wilson made it inevitable that the treaty fight would renew in virulent form the old conflict between the president and the upper house for control of foreign policy. While Wilson was in Paris there were unmistakable signs at home that he would encounter bitter opposition when he returned with his peace treaty….. ….Many historians have been frankly puzzled by Wilson’s refusal even to attempt to build support for the peace settlement in the Senate and the Republican Party— among the very men who would have the power of life or death over the Treaty of Versailles. How could an authority on the American constitutional system have forgotten the Senate’s jealous role in foreign affairs?”
- 48. Source 33: In thiscase study, as in other, careful analysis of the specific content of maternal representation yields vital clues to its meaning and purpose on a political or policy level. The construction of motherhood in the United States during World War I was highly dichotomized. On the one hand, war culture valorized proper, “patriotic” motherhood, defined by obedience to the state and the willing sacrifice of sons to the army; but it condemned “unpatriotic” forms of mothering, which included feminist and pacifist activism and “selfish,” overly emotional attachment to children. 2 Link, Arthur S. Wilson the Diplomatist: A look at His Major Foreign Policies. (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press), 1957. Link (1920-1998) was Professor Emeritus at Princeton University and held the position of Director for The Woodrow Wilson Papers. 3 Zeiger, Susan. "She Didn't Raise Her Boy to Be a Slacker: Motherhood, Conscription, and the Culture of the First World War." Feminist Studies 22, no. 1 (1996): 7-39. doi:10.2307/3178245. Susan Zeiger, PhD. has been a professor at Regis College in Massachusetts and currently works for Primary Source, a non-profit educational organization advancing access to historical sources in virtual learning spaces. She earned her
- 49. doctorate at NewYork University. Using these images as a starting point, this article will argue that the mobilization of motherhood as a national symbol during World War I was closely linked to the implementation of the first national military conscription in U.S. history. The passage of the Selective Service Act in May 1917 was highly controversial, and it left the Wilson administration anxious to win public approval for its experiment in military recruitment. Policymakers and administration officials were particularly concerned that women, especially those in the prewar women’s peace movement, might constitute a subversive element in the nation, detrimental to wartime unity and the smooth functioning of selective service. Wartime policymakers made it a priority to monitor and undermine the activities and influence of prominent female opponents of the war—most notably Emma Goldman, Jane Addams, Lillian Wald, and Crystal Eastman. This article, then will also explore the relationship of the peace
- 50. movement to foreignand domestic policy in wartime. The leaders of the war mobilization chose to take seriously the peace movement’s rhetoric that women were inherently more peaceful than men and would oppose war out of love for their children. The government seized upon these ideas and turned them against women activists, warning that women were potentially traitorous and subversive because of their personal aversion to war and their “excessive” attachment to sons. One particularly significant medium for projecting these images of wartime motherhood was the newly emerging motion picture industry. In numerous wartime films, the national and political issues surrounding military conscription were translated into a family drama, in which a mother and son struggle over a decision about military enlistment. The message of these films, and of other wartime media, was clear and consistent: American mothers could disrupt the war effort and subvert the war by holding their sons back from the army. American mothers must be taught their proper place and American sons their manly duty. In short, the
- 51. creators of thewar culture “managed” the problem of the draft, of antiwar opposition in general and women’s activism in particular, by coding these national and political issues in gender and family terms. In doing so, the wider political claims of feminist pacifism were diminished, and the feminist critique of war, developed during the neutrality period, was projected back to the public as an individual and selfishly unpatriotic response to the nation’s wartime crisis. Source 44: From World War I until early 1920, railroad, mining, and grower interest prodded the U.S. Secretary of Labor to waive the head tax, literacy tests, and the prohibition on contract labor to admit alien labor from Mexico into the United States. This brought tremendous employment opportunity for Mexicans. Mexican track workers helped modernize America’s railroad system, and increased northern employer demand for labor allowed the entrance of Mexicans into steel and auto manufacturing and meatpacking production, jobs in which they enjoyed a minimum wage and an
- 52. eight-hour day. 4 ZaragosaVargas, Crucible of Struggle, A History of Mexican Americans from Colonial Times to the Present Era. (New York: Oxford University Press), 2011. Vargas is a Distinguished Professor of Latino Studies at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He has written many books on Mexican American experiences and is an expert in Mexican American labor unions in the Midwest. Despite the great demand for labor during the World War I years, thousands of Mexicans fled to Mexico because they feared military conscription for duty overseas. The exodus was the result of widespread misunderstanding regarding the 1917 Selective Service legislation expanding the size of the U.S. armed forces from one hundred thousand to five million within a year. As one scholar observed, “this legislation required all men, including aliens, between twenty-one and thirty-one years of age to register for military service. Mexicans in Texas could not understand why they were required to register for military service if they were not subject to the draft.” Most Mexican Americans patriotically backed World War I and served
- 53. overseas as volunteersor draftees. They viewed the war as an opportunity to improve their status by demonstrating their loyalty and thereby gain full equality. Owing to the patriotism of “One Hundred Percent Americanism” sweeping the country, Mexican Americans were organized by the federal government into Loyalty Leagues. The leagues selected “Four-Minute Men” to make brief speeches at churches, labor union halls, movie theatres, and public gatherings as a way to encourage voluntary enlistments and home-front participation in agencies such as the Councils of Defense and the Red Cross, the purchase of Liberty Bonds, and patriotic commitment by men and women to the war effort. The U.S. military was strictly segregated and rife with discrimination. Soldiers with Spanish surnames were often the objects of ridicule and abject scorn by Anglo officers and enlisted men and, like black soldiers, were relegated to menial positions. Mexican Americans who could not speak English were separated by Spanish-language group and sent to Camp Cody in New Mexico or
- 54. to Camp Gordonin Georgia to improve their English proficiency with bilingual officers as their instructors. Mexican American soldiers served on the front lines with the American Expeditionary Force in France, Belgium, and Germany and fought bravely and effectively. About ten thousand Spanish-speaking New Mexicans volunteered for service in the war. In southern Colorado the Mexican American volunteer rates exceeded that of Anglos. Many Mexican Americans were cited for their valor and bravery on the battlefields of Europe. A member of the Company B of the 355th Infantry Regiment, Private Marcelino Serna of Albuquerque, New Mexico, single-handedly charged and captured twenty-four Germans on September 12, 1918. For this and other acts of bravery and courage under fire, Serna was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the French Croix de Guerre, the Victory Medal with three bars, and two Purple Hearts. David B. Cantú of Laredo enlisted in the U.S. Army using his Anglo father’s
- 55. name Barkley toavoid being segregated into a noncombat unit. Barkley- Cantú served with Company A, 356th Infantry, 89th Division, in France. In November 1918, his unit was Figure 1 Private Marcelino Serna http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=im ages&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjn6Kqz7aLdAhVNQ 6wKHekfDLoQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=http://www.elpasotimes.co m/story/news/military/2016/05/14/hurd-rename-tornillo-bridge- wwi-el-paso-hero/84385758/&psig=AOvVaw1- RNjeh_EV83AejrdoLtoi&ust=1536202202235268 engaged in pushing the Germans out of the Argonne Forest and across the Meuse River. The Tejano drowned crossing the river after going behind German lines to gather information about troop strength and deployments. For his actions, Barkley-Cantú was awarded the Medal of Honor, the French Croix de Guerre, and the Italian Croce al Merito di
- 56. Guerra. Fellow nativeTexan José de la Luz Sáenz kept a diary, which was published in 1933. In recounting his wartime service, Sáenz linked the American World War I “rhetoric of democracy” with the Mexican struggle for civil rights. On his return from the war, Sáenz translated his sacrifices and those of the many other American soldiers of Mexican descent fighting for democracy into a movement for civil rights in Texas. Source 55: Under the authority granted to him by the [Food and Fuel Control Act], Wilson appointed Progressive reformer Herbert Hoover as head of the United States Food Administration (USFA). Hoover was given authority over the distribution, importation, exportation, production, purchase, and storing of food, and had a monumental task ahead of him. Europe, which had been at war since 1914, was on the brink of starvation. Fearing a similar fate, Americans had already begun hoarding food, and shortages, price inflation, and food riots loomed on the horizon. A poor crop season in 1916 and rising prices only worsened the situation and
- 57. threatened to precipitatea major food crisis. Hoover had to convince Americans to self-regulate their consumption of food voluntarily, and realized that playing on patriotic sentiments would be the easiest, and quickest, way to do so. He urged Americans to ‘Go back to simple food, simple clothes, and simple pleasures. Pray hard, work hard, sleep hard and play hard. Do it all courageously and cheerfully.’ He repeatedly stressed good old American self-sacrifice and selflessness would save the nation and possibly the whole world. When the US entered the war in 1917, approximately one-third of the American population were either immigrants or the children of immigrants, and over 10 million Americans hailed from one of the Central Powers—Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. Moreover, millions of Irish Americans sided with the Central Powers because of their turbulent history with the English. Thus in order to bridge the gap between its native and immigrant populations, the federal government decided to create a series of propaganda
- 58. posters designed towin the hearts and minds of potential detractors. Through its Vernacular Press Division (VPD), the USFA called on immigrants to participate in the food conservation effort. The most famous example of these posters depicted ‘tempest tossed’ immigrants superimposed over a rainbow-framed Statue of Liberty. As the poster, which was translated into numerous languages, including Italian and Yiddish, 5 Tunc, Tanfer Emin. 2012. "Less Sugar, More Warships: Food as American Propaganda in the First World War." War In History 19, no. 2: 193-216. Military & Government Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed September 30, 2017). Tunc is an Assistant Professor of American Culture and Literature at Hacettepe University in Turkey. She received her doctorate from State University of New York. She has published more than 70 works, has obtained grants and recognition of Ivy League institutions, and is a committee board member of several distinguished international organizations. conveyed, ‘Food will win the war. You came here seeking Freedom. You must now help to preserve it. WHEAT is needed for the allies. Waste nothing.”
- 59. Rather than forcingimmigrant groups to Americanize through his food campaign, Herbert Hoover attempted to mobilize them by pursuing the softer tactic of graphic persuasion and cross-cultural cooperation. Conserving food became a patriotic duty—one that became equated with American identity even for non-citizen immigrants. Thus, for many, participating in such efforts became perhaps the first of many steps toward assimilation. However, this call to action was limited to the ‘right’ immigrants. While Jewish immigrants of German descent were invited to join the food conservation movement through Yiddish powers, the majority of German immigrants were blatantly excluded from these propaganda campaigns. In fact, many people became targets of grass-roots ‘100% American campaigns’ which not only succeeded in practically eliminating the teaching of German as a foreign language in American schools, but also lynched Germans, such as Robert Prager, a baker with socialist sympathies living in Collinsville, Illinois. Declared the ‘scum of the melting pot’ by the popular American magazine The Saturday Evening Post, German immigrants
- 60. were swept upin this hysteria, which included senseless violence, the burning of textbooks which praised medieval Germany, the banning of German classical music and theatrical productions, and the renaming of German food. Source 66: In June of 1917, the American Red Cross held a patriotic meeting at Carnegie Hall for the purpose of recruiting nurses. Several black nurses attended and, as noted by the New York Age, “were given every consideration.” Thoms, immediately responding to this “fervid plea for efficient nurses,” urged all black nurses “of recognized, registered schools” to enroll in the American Red Cross. What Thoms did not consider was that the American Red Cross deemed efficient nurses to be white nurses. Frances R. Elliot Davis was the first black nurse to take a course at Columbia University for the Town and Country Nursing Service of the American Red Cross, a branch associated with rural nursing and charity work. When America entered the war in 1917, all of the Town and Country Red
- 61. Cross Nurses wereautomatically enrolled as American Red Cross Nurses and received the Red Cross Pin—except Davis. A storm of protests ensued and the issue was given great coverage in the black press. Sympathetic newspapers printed letters from black nurses who found themselves equally slighted. One angry black nurse, who identified herself as having three years of hospital, operating room, and clinical experience, was stunned when she and her patriotic friends were informed that they would not be 6 Patterson, Andrea. 2012. "Black Nurses in the Great War: Fighting for and with the American Military in the Struggle for Civil Rights." Canadian Journal Of History 47, no. 3: 545-566. Humanities Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed September 30, 2017). Patterson is Professor of Liberal Studies at the California State University—Fullerton. She earned a PhD in the history of science, with emphasis in medicine, from the University of California—Berkeley. accepted. Her anonymous editorial, published in the New York City Sun, claimed that “our good intentions were thwarted, and the Government was deprived of
- 62. whatever ability wepossessed.” This anonymous black nurse pointedly denounced Jane A. Delano, the chairman of the National Committee of Red Cross Nursing, calling her “the dictator of Red Cross destinies….” [and stated] black nurses were “ready and willing to enter the government service without compensation other than our own satisfied consciences, but absolutely not through the condescension of Miss Delano.” It is evident that nurses not only made strategic use of black newspapers, but also directly challenged white authority by opening criticizing “dictator” Delano. This nurse further used her editorial platform to recommend that American black nurses offer services to the British Red Cross in Canada, “where the strain of bigotry never smirches,” and which would receive them “with open arms.” It is important to mention that not all whites had an opportunity to serve either, as poor and less educated women were also denied access. Furthermore, according to Susan Zeiger, even middle-
- 63. and upper-class whitenurses were “frustrated by lack of formal recognition.” The American military viewed nurses as threatening “precisely because nursing was considered an indisputable military need, because women controlled it, and because it was thought to have the potential to disrupt gender relations in the post-war period.” The independence of wartime nurses gave rise to fears that these single women might not be willing to settle down into domesticity once the war ended. The refusal to accept black nurses into the American Red Cross was more than some blacks could tolerate after black soldiers had enlisted in unprecedented numbers. The Red Cross and the War Department blamed each other for the failure to recruit black nurses. The Red Cross insisted that it “at all times had been willing to enroll colored nurses meeting requirements for service in military hospitals,” but the appointment of nurses rested with the Surgeon General. At a meeting of the National Committee of Red Cross Nursing Service before the war, the Surgeon General stated that
- 64. the Army NurseCorps did not recruit black nurses because proper quarters could not be secured for them. Based on that decision the Red Cross decided not to enroll them either. Reviews A review is different from an argument in that the review is a critique of published research. An author of a review might examine the quality of the argument presented by a historian, or comment on how this new research fits into the current classifications of the topic. Reviews often comment on the format and structure of a work, the length and types of sources utilized, and the writing style. A review may highlight drawbacks to a source, i.e. too many statistics, too narrow to be applicable to generalities, too dry, too dense, filled with errors. Reviews may contrast a current publication with a “classic” or “leading” perspective in the field. These comparative critiques can also be useful for understanding what is valued by scholars at a given period of time. For example, if a reviewer comments on a historian’s decision to analyze irrigation development and difficulties in West Texas, while ignoring East Texas, this reflects a regional bias. If a reviewer acknowledges an author’s
- 65. contributions to feministstudies by responding positively to the author’s research of women during wartime, but then negatively sheds light on the author’s decision to ignore the specific contributions of Asian American women, then this reflects the reviewer’s sensitivity to continued marginalization of Asian American women in the historical memory. In sum, a review evaluates the worthiness of research as well as its worth to the field (of other publications on that particular topic). In the following examples, study the phrasing of each source to determine what information should be extracted from a review during the course of research. Source 77: The main thesis of this book is that, as a result of the measures adopted and employed by the Wilson administration to control speech and behavior during the period of American belligerency in World War I, ''Civil liberties emerged ... as a relatively significant issue in public policy for the first time in American history." Then there follow discussions of the general legal status of civil liberties before World War I; the struggle in 1917 and 1918 over the adoption of legislation to curtail certain types of speech and action; the enforcement of these laws by the Wilson administration; the
- 66. impact of thisenforcement upon the public, the bar, and the courts; and the emergence of a group (the Civil Liberties Bureau) organized for the express purpose of protecting civil liberties. The next- to-the-last chapter, "The Reaction of Legal Community," is particularly good, although it would have been stronger if the author had broadened his research to include the actions and decisions of federal judges George W. Anderson in Boston and Francis Fisher Kane in Philadelphia. …. We do desperately need a fresh new study of the Wilson administration's policies toward civil liberties, but Paul L. Murphy has not given us one. On the contrary, the major part of his book simply distills what earlier historians, most of them doctrinaire civil-libertarian publicists, have written. For example, we need to place the record of the Wilson administration within a worldwide context. The most important reality of 1917-1918 was the fact that the United States was engaged in a total war, and it seems a bit much to expect the government to tolerate any significant opposition to or obstruction of the war effort. Murphy avoids this problem by ignoring it. Actually, compared to the civil-rights policies of the governments of the European belligerents during World War I, those of the United States seem almost tolerant. Finally, there are a disturbing number of errors in this book. A few examples must suffice. Wilson did not call for anti-free-speech legislation in his annual message of 1915; no "cabinet measures" were introduced into Congress in mid-1916 calling for "sharp" curtailment of freedom of speech and of the press; and the Webb-Overman Bill
- 67. of early 1917(considered by a regular, not a special, session) punished only espionage and sabotage. The Espionage Act did not "categorically" reject, "by legislature [sic] enactment, freedom of expression for the first time in American history." Moreover, "courageous" Senator Joseph I. France could not have known about the British Defense of the Realm Act of 1914 when he said that the western world had seen "no such repressive a criminal statute [the Espionage Bill] since the dark ages." The membership of the Socialist party in 1917 was between 80,000 and 100,000, not "hundreds of thousands." To cite a final example, Murphy's interpretation of the Adamson Act is, to say the least, remarkable. "The historian, sixty years removed," this book concludes, "observes what was happening in the civil liberties area during World War I with a sense of impatience and annoyance." No one would dispute this explanation of the author's approach and method. 7 Link, Arthur. (1981). The Journal of American History, 68(1), 165-166. doi:10.2307/1890974 Source 88: Professor Arthur S. Link, the leading authority on Woodrow Wilson, has now turned his attention to Wilson as an international statesman in Wilson the Diplomatist. His book is interpretative rather than
- 68. narrative; it hasno elaborate apparatus of footnotes or bibliography; but it none the less valuable for that. Mr. Link’s purpose has been to relate Wilson, the man, to the problems he faced, to show how Wilson’s preconceptions led him to judge a situation, and how, in turn, the facts of that situation modified his judgments. This kind of assessment is perhaps peculiarly appropriate to an American. When Wilson came to the White House he had made no more than a fairly casual study of foreign affairs. his main interests had been domestic and constitutional. The outside world was still not the accepted context, nor foreign policy the determinant, of national activity. Wilson brought to his diplomacy moral standards learned in a land both diverse and isolated. He faced a problem worthy of him, unique in its moral complexity. The first World War is still the greatest cataclysm since the French Revolution. Its outbreak could not be explained merely in diplomatic terms. Much effort and skill were wasted then, and have been wasted since, on the false issue of war guilt; but thinking men were shocked into questioning the basis of their society. To these Wilson was uniquely able to appeal. This
- 69. man and theopportunity met. Attention has been concentrated on the origins of the war. In Europe much less attention has been given to the period when war might have been ended by negotiation. But in the United States too, attention has been concentrated on the origins of the war—the American war—and on the process by which Wilson, the advocate of neutrality both on moral and on political grounds, came to be convinced that the United States must intervene. Wilson was dominated, as was no other leader, by the peace to which he looked forward. His fight for the treaty and for the League was almost too directly the result of his decision for war. It is for that reason less interesting. It is also, probably, less important. For Wilson’s mistakes at Versailles, and his failure to retain American support, were secondary. The treaty was vastly better than it would have been without the moral forces which Wilson called up and led. And most of the mistakes of the post-war years—which were obviously not Wilson’s—were not even American. Between the wars Europe might, with knowledge and determination, have saved herself. These lacking, the United States could not have saved her.
- 70. This must affectour judgment of Wilson’s work. His critics have too often fallen into the idealistic error to which Wilson was prone—and for which they do not hesitate to attack him—that of regarding as failure anything less than complete success. His final ‘failure’ has led too many to overlook how subtle, and how largely correct, his important judgments were. Mr. Link is not misled. His account of Wilson’s policy is balanced, lucid and perceptive. In giving it he is constantly illuminating about the great struggle which Wilson was trying to assess. Historians will always differ about this subject, but here is required reading for students both of Wilson and of the war. 8 A. E. Campbell. The English Historical Review 74, no. 292 (1959): 546-47. http://0- www.jstor.org.libcat.sanjac.edu/stable/559295. Campbell’s critique is a review of Authur S. Link’s, Wilson the Diplomatist: A look at His Major Foreign Policies, 1957, John Hopkins University Press. At the time of the review’s publication, Campbell was a professor at King’s College in Cambridge, but concluded his work as Professor Emeritus at University of Birmingham. He is a British scholar who was considered a leading historian of early twentieth century U.S. foreign policy.
- 71. http://0-www.jstor.org.libcat.sanjac.edu/stable/559295 http://0-www.jstor.org.libcat.sanjac.edu/stable/559295 Reviews provide arich amount of information and can be a useful starting point for students who need to quickly deduce which issues are currently debated by historians. There are websites dedicated to informing the public about recent history publications and these sites provide scholarly critiques to assist readers. Here are a few: -- https://muse.jhu.edu/journal/168 -Net -- https://www.h-net.org/reviews/home.php -- http://historymatters.gmu.edu/webreviews/ Some sites provide specific guidelines for submitting a review: -- https://www.historians.org/publications-and- directories/american-historical-review/book-review-guide -- https://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/reviews_in_american_histor y/guidelines.html -- http://jah.oah.org/submit/book-reviews/
- 72. Determining Credibility Secondary sourcesvary in quality. Some books and articles are better researched or take into consideration a broader range of perspectives. How can you tell which secondary source is more reputable? Which source should you trust? There are intrinsic and extrinsic measures of quality. Intrinsic gauges of quality appear in the book or article itself, while extrinsic measures of quality require you to refer to book reviews and other published aids to assess the quality of a secondary source. Intrinsic measures of merit include the following tests: 1. How detailed is the author’s account? Does it have enough facts to satisfy an ordinary reader’s curiosity? How well did the author convince you? 2. Does the author seem familiar with other scholars’ arguments? Does he or she recognize and augment or challenge other scholars’ conclusions in the text or notes? 3. Does the author use sufficient reference notes? Do the notes cite primary material or merely other secondary sources? Does the author seem to have gone directly to the primary material or relied on others’ research? Do the notes seem fresh (that is, has the author made use of the most recent
- 73. research on hisor her topic)? 4. If your secondary source is a book, who published it? A good piece of scholarship will generally find a good publisher—that is, if the book was published by a first- rate press, you can be sure that it received a thorough review before it was accepted. Universities sponsor some of the best scholarly presses. Many leading commercial publishers also have extensive lists of history books. The quality of the journal in which an article is published is a good guide to the quality of the article. https://muse.jhu.edu/journal/168 https://www.h-net.org/reviews/home.php http://historymatters.gmu.edu/webreviews/ https://www.historians.org/publications-and- directories/american-historical-review/book-review-guide https://www.historians.org/publications-and- directories/american-historical-review/book-review-guide https://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/reviews_in_american_histor y/guidelines.html http://jah.oah.org/submit/book-reviews/ Extrinsic guides to quality secondary sources: 1. As you become familiar with a number of secondary sources on any topic, you will begin to find that some of them are cited widely. By their choice of authorities,
- 74. the historians themselvesare telling you which secondary sources they rate the highest. 2. Book reviews will help you to discover other scholars’ evaluation of the history book you have in your hand. The reviewers restate the thesis or theme of a book, report its findings, and then assess the quality of the book and the success of the author in completing the task he or she has set out to accomplish. 3. Awards from a reputable organization may distinguish the source as highly credible. 4. You may want to review the education level and occupation of the author. However, you also want to see whether or not the research preferences of the author match his/her degree(s). For example, while an individual may hold a doctorate in Business Technology with emphasis in Marketing and Computer Graphics, this would be a poor match for a published work on the philosophy of teaching kindergartners. Historiography The study of the evolution of research on a particular topic is known as historiography. In other words, a history of what people have said and thought about a historical event. When conducting research, it is always best to
- 75. understand what hasbeen explored previously, which aspects of the research have been fully explored, to identify research gaps, and to rethink past publications in light of new sources, new events, new approaches to managing similar events, etc. Yes, “history repeats itself,” but never in exactly the same way. When a period in time seems very similar to past experiences, it is useful to understand what is similar and what is dissimilar. Often it is the ‘dissimilar’ angle of the current event that reignites public interest in the past. The ‘dissimilar’ component also may breathe new life into interpretations of the past. In the following source selection, identify the evolution of the historical topic and how the historian explains these changes in interpretation over time. Source 89: Why did the United States intervene in World War I? The immediate impetus behind the decision to declare war is clear enough, but its deeper roots are more puzzling. In defiance of American threats, Germany launched a campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917. President Woodrow Wilson was not eager for war but both
- 76. contemporary observers and subsequenthistorians generally agree that failure to carry out his earlier threats would have caused an unacceptable loss of prestige and credibility. On the other hand, as Kennan's comments suggest, 9 Fordham, Benjamin O. "Revisionism Reconsidered: Exports and American Intervention in World War I." International Organization 61, no. 2 (2007): 277-310. http://0- www.jstor.org.libcat.sanjac.edu/stable/4498146. Fordham is a Professor of Political Science at Binghamton University and considers himself an expert on economic influence in international relations. The most thorough World War I historiographies include Jennifer D. Keene’s, “Remembering the ‘Forgotten War’: American Historiography on World War I, Historian 78, no. 3: 439-468. History Reference Center, EBSCOhost (accessed September 30, 2017). Keene is a Professor and Chair of the Department of History at Chapman University and has published many books on the United States during World War I. For a global historiography, see Keir A. Lieber’s, “The New History of World War I and What It Means for International Relations Theory,” in International Security 32, no. 2, pgs. 155-191. Lieber is a professor at Georgetown University and specializes in international affairs. http://0-www.jstor.org.libcat.sanjac.edu/stable/4498146 the reasons Wilson made the threats that led to war in 1917 are
- 77. far less obvious.The risk of war was apparent at the time. As early as mid-1915, many observers, including Wilson's secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, worried that the president's response to the German submarine campaign could eventually lead to intervention. The submarine threat to American lives does not offer a very convincing explanation on its own. German submarine activity had cost only 236 American lives by April 1917, all but fourteen embarked on ships flying the flags of belligerent states. From the perspective of 7 December 1941, or 11 September 2001-not to mention the 53,402 American combat deaths sustained after intervention- these losses are not especially large. They hardly seem sufficient to explain the abandonment of the long-standing American policy of avoiding entanglement in conflicts among the European powers. Debate among historians about American intervention has focused on filling this explanatory gap. Some have stressed broader strategic considerations, particularly the need to prevent Germany from dominating the European continent or eroding British
- 78. control of theseas. Others have argued that Wilson's policies arose from his ideological commitments to democracy and international law. Still others have focused on the psychology of Wilson and his closest advisers to explain his choices. One potential explanation is almost universally dismissed by contemporary historians of U.S. foreign relations: that the war-induced boom in exports to the Allies prompted the Wilson administration to take a strong stand against German submarine warfare, ultimately leading to intervention. This explanation was widely accepted during the interwar period and provided the intellectual justification for the neutrality legislation of the 1930s. Largely for this reason, it became deeply unfashionable after Pearl Harbor. Today, the "revisionist" historians who advanced this line of argument during the 1920s and 1930s, when they are remembered at all, tend to be lumped together with the isolationist politicians who resisted American intervention in World War II. This article will make a case for reconsidering their argument about the influence of economic interests
- 79. on American involvementin the war. The economic explanation offered by most academic revisionists was subtler and more convincing than the conspiracy theories about influential "merchants of death" that publicists and politicians promoted during the interwar period. It also bears directly on recent scholarly debates about the effect of trade on international conflict. An analysis of data on the wartime export boom and congressional voting on war-related measures offers substantial evidence that economic factors influenced political actors' positions on the war. This article proceeds in four sections. The first reviews the revisionist argument and its relationship to current scholarship on trade and conflict. The second evaluates the plausibility of the revisionists' claims by examining data on the aggregate economic impact of the war on the United States before intervention. The third section tests the influence of economic considerations on the positions of political actors more rigorously using congressional roll-call votes on war-related measures. A final section summarizes and concludes.
- 80. Source 910: Interpretations ofWoodrow Wilson’s “progressive” foreign policy have changed continually in response to widening bodies of research material and the developing tones of society. After writings of the 1920s offered generally positive appraisals, the depression decade delivered some striking criticisms of Wilson’s diplomacy. Positive assessments returned to the fore in the era of World War II, but these interpretations were soon countered by neorevisionist writings of the 1960s which focused on counterrevolutionary, ethnocentric elements in Wilsonian ideology. During the 1970s Mr. Wilson was reinterpreted yet again, this time with the use of recently opened foreign records as well as new insights advanced by the Woodrow Wilson Papers project under the direction of Arthur S. Link. Indeed, Link himself provided further delineation of the President’s religious views, and a substantial body of literature portrayed the modern complexity of not just Wilson but his times. Economic, political, moral, legal, and security factors became integrated in multicausal estimates of what
- 81. motivated Wilson; idealismand realism were considered intertwined strains of his world view. Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World in many ways represents an extension of this most recent wave of Wilsonian studies. Edited by Professor Link and offered as a supplement to The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, the work brings together original essays by seven scholars. Although most of the essays detail individual episodes of Wilsonian diplomacy, all share the unifying theme that Wilson was neither a rapid interventionist nor an ineffectual idealist. The book unfolds the argument that Wilson usually took rational, well-informed positions on the revolutionary upheaval and social disorder of the era of World War I. Questions for Consideration: 1. DEFINE: What does historiography mean? 2. IDENTIFY: What kind of information should be included in a review or critique? 3. COMPARE AND CLASSIFY: Based on our study of U.S. entry into World War 1, which historian argued the war was a matter of national security and would this author be classified as orthodox or revisionist? What “schools of thought” were
- 82. outlined in thispacket? Where would other scholars/publications fit; how would they be classified? 4. CONTRAST AND EVALUATE: How do scholars organize their writing? Did all of the scholarly examples included in the packet clarify their purpose and/or thesis? Does the creation of a contrasting framework make it easier for readers to process similarities and differences in interpretation? 5. RESEARCH AND CRITICAL THINKING: Perform an internet search and locate a recent publication on WW1. Take a moment to read the synopsis and a couple of reader reviews of this publication. Would the author of the book you examined be considered orthodox, revisionists, post-revisionist, or neo-orthodox, and why? Did the information provided in the review of the book you located offer a balanced perspective of advantages and disadvantages associated with this book? 10 Tennant S. McWilliams. The Journal of Southern History 49, no. 3 (1983): 470-472. This is a review of Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921, edited by Arthur S. Link and published by University of North Carolina Press in 1982.
- 83. McWilliams has heldpositions in teaching and as Dean of the School of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Alabama—Birmingham. 6. CAUSE AND EFFECT: What is propaganda and what role did this type of source material play in U.S. war involvement? 7. BIOGRAPHY/TOP DOWN: Woodrow Wilson is one of the most frequently studied world leaders; why are scholars drawn to Wilson? How do historians understand his world view? Is there consensus about Wilson’s agenda and/or importance; why or why not? 8. WORLD VIEWS CONSIDERED: What did the treaty concluding the war specify? How did leaders in the U.S. view the treaty? What issues were discussed in regards to signing the treaty? How did other nations view the treaty? Did the United States, or Wilson in particular, uphold the ideas presented in the treaty or were the ideas aimed at rewarding some while disadvantaging others? (You may need to reflect on information presented about the USSR in your textbook, as well as other information presented in the lecture). Motivation and Purpose in Primary Sources Analyzing Motives for Imperialism
- 84. In dealing withprimary sources, two of the most important factors is understanding the motivation and purpose behind the original author. What is the difference between motivation and purpose? They are basically cause and effect. Motivation is the "cause" -- the reason why the source was written. It is the background for the source. Purpose is the "effect" -- the impact or result. Sometimes cause is more complex than appears on the surface. For example, a law states the outcome lawmakers hope to achieve. In a basic sense, motivation is that they wanted that goal. However, motivation goes deeper than just the desire to achieve a goal. Motivation includes the attitudes or beliefs behind that goal. Furthermore, individual motives may be different, but compatible enough to support a like policy. While the effect is the law, the causes may be many. To complicate matters further, in a longitudinal study, or a study of changes over time, the law may not be the singular effect. Contrasting primary sources may reveal unintended effects of a law. Court cases are primary sources and the verdicts in these cases may expose a changing interpretation of the law, which might prompt a student to inquire about changing societal attitudes and values. Looking for Motivation and Purpose Study the following source excerpts with the following questions in mind: · Which passages reveal the author’s motive? · Is there any evidence to suggest the author’s beliefs are singular or are they shared by the public? · How have historians analyzed the motives of national leaders? Who is the author of this source? can you locate the footnote containing the Author information? What other important data is provided in the footnote? Source 1: “the Pacific is the future” MR. PRESIDENT, I address the Senate at this time because senators and members of the House on both sides have asked that I give to Congress and the country my observations in the Philippines and the Far East…..
- 85. Mr. President, thetimes call for candor…. The Philippines are ours forever, "territory belonging to the United States," as the Constitution calls them…. And just beyond the Philippines are China's illimitable markets…. We will not retreat from either…. We will not repudiate our duty in the archipelago. We will not abandon our opportunity in the Orient…. We will not renounce our part in the mission of our race, trustee, under God, of the civilization of the world…. And we will move forward to our work, not howling out regrets like slaves whipped to their burdens but with gratitude for a task worthy of our strength and Thanksgiving to Almighty God that He has marked us as His chosen people, henceforth to lead in the regeneration of the world…. This island empire is the last land left in all the oceans…. If it should prove a mistake to abandon it, the blunder once made would be irretrievable…. If it proves a mistake to hold it, the error can be corrected when we will…. Every other progressive nation stands ready to relieve us…. But to hold it will be no mistake. Our largest trade henceforth must be with Asia. The Pacific is our ocean. More and more Europe will manufacture the most it needs, secure from its colonies the most it consumes. Where shall we turn for consumers of our surplus? Geography answers the question. China is our natural customer. She is nearer to us than to England, Germany, or Russia, the commercial powers of the present and the future. They have moved nearer to China by securing permanent bases on her borders. The Philippines give us a base at the door of all the East. ...It will be hard for Americans who have not studied them to understand the people…. They are a barbarous race, modified by three centuries of contact with a decadent race…. The Filipino is the South Sea Malay, put through a process of three hundred years of superstition in religion, dishonesty in dealing, disorder in habits of industry, and cruelty, caprice, and corruption in government…. It is barely possible that 1,000 men in all the archipelago are capable of self government in the
- 86. Anglo-Saxon sense.... But, Senators,it would be better to abandon this combined garden and Gibraltar of the Pacific, and count our blood and treasure already spent a profitable loss than to apply any academic arrangement of self-government to these children…. They are not capable of self-government…. How could they be? They are Orientals, Malays, instructed by Spaniards in the latter's worst estate.... They know nothing of practical government except as they have witnessed the weak, corrupt, cruel, and capricious rule of Spain…. What magic will anyone employ to dissolve in their minds and characters those impressions of governors and governed which three centuries of misrule has created? What alchemy will change the oriental quality of their blood and set the self-governing currents of the American pouring through their Malay veins? How shall they, in the twinkling of an eye, be exalted to the heights of self- governing peoples which required a thousand years for us to reach, Anglo-Saxon though we are? Mr. President, this question is deeper than any question of party politics; deeper than any question of the isolated policy of our country even; deeper even than any question of constitutional power. It is elemental. It is racial. God has not been preparing the English-speaking and Teutonic peoples for a thousand years for nothing but vain and idle self-contemplation and self- admiration. No! He has made us the master organizers of the world to establish system where chaos reigns. He has given us the spirit of progress to overwhelm the forces of reaction throughout the earth. He has made us adepts in government that we may administer government among savage and senile peoples. Were it not for such a force as this the world would relapse into barbarism and night. And of all our race He has marked the American people as His chosen nation to finally lead in the regeneration of the world. This is the divine mission of America, and it holds for us all the profit, all the glory, all the happiness possible to man. We are trustees of the world's progress, guardians of its righteous peace. The judgment of the
- 87. Master is uponus: "Ye have been faithful over a few things; I will make you ruler over many things." Mr. President and Senators, adopt the resolution offered, that peace may quickly come and that we may begin our saving, regenerating, and uplifting work.... Reject it, and the world, history, and the American people will know where to forever fix the awful responsibility for the consequences that will surely follow such failure to do our manifest duty....[footnoteRef:1] [1: “Policy Regarding the Philippines,” Congressional Record, 56th Congress, 1st Session (9 January 1900), 704-712. Senator Albert Beveridge (R-Ind) before Congress. ] Source 2: “the Strenuous Life” In speaking to you, men of the greatest city of the West, men of the State which gave to the country Lincoln and Grant, men who pre-eminently and distinctly embody all that is most American in the American character, I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life, the life of toil and effort, of labor and strife; to preach that highest form of success which comes, not to the man who desires mere easy peace, but to the man who does not shrink from danger, from hardship, or from bitter toil, and who out of these wins the splendid ultimate triumph. A life of ignoble ease, a life of that peace which springs merely from lack either of desire or of power to strive after great things, is as little worthy of a nation as of an individual. I ask only that what every self-respecting American demands from himself and from his sons shall be demanded of the American nation as a whole. Who among you would teach your boys that ease, that peace, is to be the first consideration in their eyes-to be the ultimate goal after which they strive? You men of Chicago have made this city great, you men of Illinois have done your share, and more than your share, in making America great, because you neither preach nor practice such a doctrine. You work yourselves, and you bring up your sons to work. If you are rich and are worth your salt, you will teach your sons
- 88. that though theymay have leisure, it is not to be spent in idleness; for wisely used leisure merely means that those who possess it, being free from the necessity of working for their livelihood, are all the more bound to carry on some kind of non- remunerative work in science, in letters, in art, in exploration, in historical research-work of the type we most need in this country, the successful carrying out of which reflects most honor upon the nation. If we are to be a really great people, we must strive in good faith to play a great part in the world. We cannot avoid meeting great issues. All that we can determine for ourselves is whether we shall meet them well or ill. Last year we could not help being brought face to face with the problem of war with Spain. All we could decide was whether we should shrink like cowards from the contest, or enter into it as beseemed a brave and high- spirited people; and; once in, whether failure or success should crown our banners. So it is now. We cannot avoid the responsibilities that confront us in Hawaii, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. All we can decide is whether we shall meet them in a way that will redound to the national credit, or whether we shall make of our dealings with these new problems a dark and shameful page in our history. To refuse to deal with them at all merely amounts to dealing with them badly. We have a given problem to solve. If we undertake the solution, there is, of course, always danger that we may not solve it aright; but to refuse to undertake the solution simply renders it certain that we cannot possibly solve it aright. “When men fear work or fear righteous war, when women fear motherhood, they tremble on the brink of doom. If we stand idly by, if we seek merely swollen, slothful ease and ignoble peace, if we shrink from the hard contests where men must win at hazard of their lives and at the risk of all they hold dear, then the bolder and stronger peoples will pass you by, and will win for themselves the domination of the world.”[footnoteRef:2] [2: Roosevelt, Theodore. 1899. “The Strenuous Life.” In Theodore Roosevelt, The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses. New
- 89. York: The CenturyCo. 1901.] Source 3: U.S. Exports[footnoteRef:3] [3: Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1960, pp. 550-551.] U.S. Exports In Millions of Dollars / Year China Japan Australia / Oceania 1900 15 29 41 1897 12 13 23 1894 6 4 12 1888 5 4 15 1875 1 2 5 Motivation and Purpose in Secondary Sources Secondary sources may be designed to be informative, analytical, or persuasive. Informative texts are straightforward: they tell readers about a subject. Textbooks, reference books, encyclopedias, travelogues are all examples of concise informative sources. You may also find informative writing in
- 90. scholarly journals andreports, however these sources may attempt to provide information about certain aspects while ignoring other facts and details so it is important to remain suspicious about the motive of the writer while reading informative works, as these types of sources are not immune to bias. Persuasive writing is one of the more popular forms of writing. As a student, you encounter views designed to convince you of a particular perspective. News articles and speeches are often written in a way that sways the reader to agree with a particular thought or view. Commercials and advertisements are certainly written to convince the viewer or reader to agree with one side or product. Persuasive writing is noticeably biased, however, that does not mean readers should chunk persuasive pieces to the corner and ignore them. These sources continue to offer a better understanding of a view within the broader spectrum of popular thoughts on a topic. Analytical writing looks more specifically at a subject or event. This style of writing breaks the subject/topic into parts, studying each component. Explaining how something works or happened might qualify as analytical. In the following selection, historian John Hollitz offers insight into the changing beliefs of historians about what motivated U.S. imperialism. Source 4: Hollitz, Thinking Through the Past Historians have been drawn to the decision to annex the Philippines for several important reasons. When the United States took control of the country, it broke with its own revolutionary past and anti-colonial ideals. The decision for empire also provides a powerful case study—for some, a cautionary tale—regarding the unintended consequences of intervening in foreign lands. In this case, of course, that consequence was a prolonged, bloody military struggle far from American shores. Finally, Philippine annexation occurred just as the United States has arrived as a great power, a status it holds more than a century later. To many historians, then,
- 91. American imperialism atthe turn of the twentieth century represents an important key for understanding the rise of the United States as a global power. If historians do not dispute the importance of Philippine annexation, they do not necessarily agree about the reasons for it. Often, their explanations reflect conflicting views about the most important influences on foreign policy. Some scholars argue that democratic or popular influences play an important role in shaping policy; others contend that elites dominate decision making. Still others insist that American foreign policy has been shaped primarily by powerful ideas and cultural forces. For the better part of a century, explanations for Philippine annexation have reflected these competing views about influence. The result has been a fierce debate among historians not only about the forces propelling American imperialism at the turn of the twentieth century, but about the nature of foreign policy in a democratic society. One argument, an extension of President William McKinley’s own explanation at the time, emphasized a humanitarian impulse behind American overseas expansion at the end of the nineteenth century. In this view, the decision to go to war with Spain so as to liberate Cuba from the oppressive Spanish rule naturally spilled over to a desire to keep the Philippines once the war was over. Annexation would “uplift” the Filipinos and prevent another oppressive power from seizing an independent but weak Philippines. Proponents of this view maintain that the American empire was thus “accidental” in nature. An unthinking response to events in Cuba and the Philippines, it was carried out without forethought or assessments about American strategic or economic interests. In other words, the decision for empire was an “aberration” that was unrelated to the needs of America’s expanding industrial economy. That view did not long go unchallenged. In fact, early in the twentieth century many historians believed that the search for overseas markets explained both the war with Spain and the subsequent decision for empire. In the 1930s, for example,
- 92. historian Charles Beardargued that McKinley’s decision for war reflected his close ties to expansionist business leaders. This interpretation was especially popular during the Great Depression, when economic issues were on the minds of many people. American generally held business responsible for the country’s economic ills, and “war profiteers” were under investigation by the U.S. Senate for their role in World War I. At the same time, historian Julius Pratt argued that another influential, elite group was more responsible for American imperialism than profit-minded businessmen. In Expansionists of 1898 (1936), Pratt concluded that many prominent business leaders actually opposed going to war with Spain. Vocal and well-placed officials such as Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge pushed McKinley to war with Spain. Only when these expansionists pressed for retaining the Philippines, Pratt concluded, did the business community finally join the annexationist chorus. Later, many historians rejected arguments about the responsibility of these elite groups for American overseas expansion. Reminded by World War II of the powerful effects of mass hysteria, in the postwar years they emphasized the emotional or irrational nature of American overseas expansion at the end of the nineteenth century. In their view, McKinley and the Congress were swept toward war and colonialism by a public whipped to a frenzy by so-called yellow journalism—the sensationalist coverage of Spanish oppression in Cuba. The decision for war, then, was an “unthinking” response by political leaders to popular passion. As historian Ernest May argued in Imperial Democracy (1961), William McKinley was simply unable to withstand the tide of public opinion and “led his country unwillingly toward a war that he did not want.” A little later, historian Richard Hofstadter extended this thesis when he concluded that Americans were suffering from a collective “psychic crisis” in the 1890s brought on by economic depression and social turmoil related to industrialization.
- 93. Increasingly frightened abouttheir own prospects at home, Hofstadter concluded, Americans were especially susceptible to manipulation by the yellow press, which offered them the prospect of overseas conquests as a cure for their own frustrations. As in the humanitarian-impulse interpretation, America’s unthinking decisions for war and empire were aberrations that had more to do with popular influence on the government than with concerns for overseas markets. Historiography is the study of evolving scholarly interpretations on a specific event. As scholars latch on to new evidence and form new interpretations, old theories may be discredited. When trying to understand an event, it is important to know how leading scholars have shifted their thinking and why. Sometimes old theories re-emerge as most valid. ….Closer to our own time, many historians have stressed the important role of culture in shaping the past, even in the field of foreign relations. These historians emphasize the ideological rather than purely economic motives behind overseas expansion, in particular the belief in the duty of the “Anglo-Saxon race” to uplift “uncivilized” peoples. In Spreading the American Dream (1982), for instance, Emily Rosenberg argued that assumptions about the superiority of Anglo-Saxons and of American political, religious, and economic institutions propelled American expansion at the turn of the century. In Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (1987), historian Michael Hunt likewise argued that an ideological stew containing generous portions of chauvinism and racism led many Americans to assume that they could simply remake other societies. [footnoteRef:4] [4: Hollitz, John. Thinking Through The Past: A Critical Thinking Approach to U.S. History, Vol. 2, 4th Ed. (Wadsworth, Cengage Learning), 2010, pg. 79-81.] Source 5: Harvest of Empire Victory in the Spanish-American War and the sudden acquisition of overseas colonies made the nation uneasy at first. True, Frederick Jackson Turner and others were espousing the
- 94. view that territorialexpansion and Anglo-American freedom were inseparable, and most Americans believed that, but occupying foreign lands and lording over their peoples seemed to contradict the very liberties for which the nation had fought its own revolution. Not surprisingly, the war with Spain led to our first anti-imperialist movement—against suppression of the Filipino independence movement. On the whole, outright territorial annexations ceased after 1898. Wars of conquest, the sanctioning of armed invasions by filibuster groups, the purchase of territories, gave way to gunboat diplomacy and to a more disguised yet far more extensive system of financial domination. Economic conquest replaced outright political annexation, as the region evolved into the incubator for the multinational American corporation. By 1924, Latin America accounted for nearly half of all foreign U.S. investment, according to one U.S. Department of Commerce estimate. As we shall see, a series of military occupations early in the century—sometimes brief, sometimes lasting decades, but always for the most spurious of reasons—allowed U.S. banks and corporations to gain control over key industries in every country. Latin American ventures sprang up on Wall Street overnight as sugar, fruit, railroad, mining, gas, and electric company executives raced south on the heels of the marines. Thanks to the aid of pliant local elites and of U.S. diplomats or military commanders who often ended up as partners of managers of the new firms, the newcomers quickly corralled lucrative concessions while the host countries fell deeper into debt and dependence. Nowhere did the new U.S. policy leave such as profound legacy as in Puerto Rico. When General Nelson Miles landed in the town of Guánica on July 25, 1898, in the midst of the Spanish- American War, most Puerto Ricans greeted his arrival and rejoiced at his promise to end Spanish colonialism. “Our purpose is not to interfere with the existing laws and customs which are beneficial for your people,” Miles declared in a
- 95. proclamation. Few imaginedthen that the island would remain a U.S. possession for the entire twentieth century, or that it would become the most important colony in our own country’s history. Two years after the occupation started, Congress passed the Foraker Act, which declared the island a U.S. territory and authorized the president to appoint its civilian governor and top administrators. The new law permitted islanders their own House of Delegates, but it reserved for Congress the right to annul any laws those delegates passed. It assigned trade, treaty, postal, sanitary, and military powers to the federal government and it gave the islanders only one nonvoting delegate in Congress. In many ways, the Foraker Act gave Puerto Ricans less self-government than they had enjoyed under Spain. Throughout most of the nineteenth century, after all, Puerto Ricans had been citizens of Spain and island voters had sent as many as sixteen voting delegates to the Spanish Cortes. And, in 1897, Spain had promulgated a new Charter of Autonomy, which gave the island virtual sovereignty. The Foraker Act, though, went beyond disenfranchising Puerto Ricans. It forbade the island from making commercial treaties with other countries and it replaced the Puerto Rican peso with the American dollar, while devaluing the peso. This made it easier for U.S. sugar companies to gobble up Puerto Rican- owned lands. As a result, thousands of former independent coffee farmers joined the ranks of the mushrooming agricultural proletariat. Legal challenges to the new law quickly led to several precedent-setting cases before the Supreme Court. Known as the “Insular Cases,” they were all decided by a narrow one-vote margin, yet they have provided the principal legal backing for this country’s holding of colonies to the present day. They are the equivalent for Puerto Ricans of the Dred Scott Decision for African Americans. Ironically, the same group of justices ruled in Dred Scott and the Insular Cases. The pivotal decision was Downes v. Bidwell in 1901. In that case, the Court ruled that “the Island of Porto Rico is a territory appurtenant and
- 96. belonging to theUnited States, but not a part of the United States within the revenue clauses of the Constitution.” Since the island was not an incorporated territory of the United States, as the frontier territories had been, the Court ruled that the Constitution did not automatically apply in Puerto Rico unless Congress specifically granted Puerto Ricans citizenship. In his dissent, Justice John Marshall Harlan issued a most eloquent rebuttal to the horrendous implications of the decision: “The idea that this country may acquire territories anywhere upon the earth, by conquest or treaty, and hold them as mere colonies or provinces, the people inhabiting them to enjoy only such rights as Congress chooses to accord to them, is wholly inconsistent with the spirit and genius as well as with the words of the Constitution.” Between 1900 and 1901, more than five thousand Puerto Ricans were transported to Hawaii in a dozen shiploads under contract to the Hawaii Sugar Planters Association. It was a traumatic odyssey, first by ship to New Orleans, then by train to San Francisco, then by ship again to Honolulu, and scores escaped along the way from the harsh treatment they received. The bulk of the migrants eventually settled on Oahu, where the founded the first major Puerto Rican community outside their homeland. Back in Washington, Congress repeatedly turned down petitions by Puerto Rican leaders for full self-rule and eventual statehood for the island. Its refusal angered even the most avidly pro- annexation leaders, like Dr. Julio Henna and Jose Celso Barbosa. By 1914, the full Puerto Ricans House of Delegates, frustrated by the U.S. intransigence, asked Washington to cede the island its independence. Congress responded instead with the Jones Act in 1917, imposing U.S. citizenship on all Puerto Ricans over the unanimous objection of their House of Delegates. “The Congress of the United States,” declared Minnesota representative Clarence Miler, “says to the people of Porto Rico, once and for all that they are part of the United States domain and will always remain there; that the legislation for
- 97. independence in PortoRico must come to a decided and permanent end.” For the next thirty years, the island remained a direct colony, its Anglo governors appointed by the President, its population virtually ignored by Congress, and U.S. policy toward it controlled by a handful of American sugar companies. The companies so exploited their workers that in the 1930s and 1940s, Puerto Rico became notorious as the poorhouse of the Caribbean and as a hotbed for strikes and anti-American violence. Not until 1948, in response to a growing nationalist movement and to pressure from the United Nations to end colonialism, did Congress allow Puerto Ricans to elect their own governor. Four years later, the United States approved a form of limited self-rule, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, which exists to this day. The U.S. presence in the Dominican Republic began in the nineteenth century with dictator Ulises Heureaux, who saddled his country with massive foreign debt. To stave off bankruptcy, he hatched a refinancing plan in 1892 with the country’s Dutch creditors and some New York investors. As part of the scheme, the Dutch sold their debt to a newly formed U.S. firm, the Santo Domingo Improvement Company, one of whose officers was a member of President Benjamin Harrison’s cabinet. The new firm paid off the Dutch bonds and secretly gave Heureaux millions of dollars in new loans. Heureaux, in turn, gave the firm control of the national bank and one of the country’s two railroads. Only after Heureaux’s assassination in 1896 did the new Dominican government discover that the former president had racked up $34 million in debt, the bulk of it to foreign creditors. The country’s annual customs revenues, its main source of income at the time, was a mere $2 million. A good portion of the debt, it turned out, had been fraudulently marketed by the Improvement Company to unsuspecting Catholic farmers in Europe who thought they were lending money to the Dominican religious order, not the Dominican Republic!
- 98. When a financialcrisis hit in 1905, and customs revenues plummeted, the new government suspended debt payments, which prompted several European powers to threaten intervention to collect their money. President Roosevelt, worried that sea lanes to his unfinished Panama Canal might be imperiled by a European occupation, stepped in and offered to consolidate the Dominican debt with a new loan from a New York bank. Roosevelt insisted, however, that the Dominicans turn over all customs revenues to a U.S.-appointed agent and earmark the lion’s share of it for debt service. No longer would they be able to raise government spending or increase taxes without U.S. consent. From that point on, the country was effectively a financial protectorate. Once Roosevelt’s overseers arrived, they jump- started additional legal reforms to benefit foreign investors. In 1906, for instance, they pressured the government to grant tax exemptions to all sugar produced for export. In 1911, they convinced it to permit the division of communally owned lands, making it easier for sugar growers to enlarge their holdings. Each time Dominican officials balked at some new demand from Washington, Yankee warships appeared offshore to force their submission.[footnoteRef:5] [5: Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, A History of Latinos in America. (New York: Penguin Books), 2000. Juan Gonzalez has won numerous journalism awards and has been declared one of the most influential Hispanics in the country. Born in Puerto Rico, Gonzalez graduated from Columbia University and works as a columnist with New York’s Daily News.] Why do we study Motivation and Purpose? There is an old cliche which states "those who forget the past are doomed to repeat it." This is based on the idea that history is cyclical -- that it goes through cycles of economic ups and downs, peacetime to wartime, trends in fashion or technology, etc. However, this also brings with it the belief that these cycles are inevitable. People fall into the habit of saying to themselves, "I cannot change this. We are just in the
- 99. economic downturn, butit will get better." That is not true. In the words of one of my former professors, "it is not that History repeats itself; it's that people keep making the same mistakes." He was true in a much broader sense. People are motivated by the same factors today that they were a hundred or a thousand years ago. Over time, humans might have changed what they want, but greed is still a strong motivator. The next source is a speech given by Emilio Aguinaldo, the first President of the Philippines. As you read, take notice of instances where Aguinaldo recognizes the intertwining of motivation and historical cyclicality. Are Aguinaldo’s comments reflective of individual motives, national motives, or is there a universal angle to the beliefs and fears expressed in his speech? A Case Against the United States We Filipinos have all along believed that if the American nation at large knew exactly, as we do, what is daily happening in the Philippine Islands, they would rise en masse, and demand that this barbaric war should stop. There are other methods of securing sovereignty--the true and lasting sovereignty that has its foundation in the hearts of the people… And, did America recognize this fact, she would cease to be the laughing stock of other civilized nations, as she became when she abandoned her traditions and set up a double standard of government --government by consent in America, government by force in the Philippine Islands. ….You have been deceived all along the line. You have been greatly deceived in the personality of my countrymen. You went to the Philippines under the impression that their inhabitants were ignorant savages, whom Spain had kept in subjection at the bayonet’s point…. We have been represented by your popular press as if we were Africans or Mohawk Indians. We smile, and deplore the want of ethnological knowledge on the part of our literary friends. We are none of these. We are simply Filipinos. …..You repeat constantly the dictum that we cannot govern
- 100. ourselves…..With equal reason,you might have said the same thing some fifty or sixty years ago of Japan; and, little over a hundred years ago, it was extremely questionable, when you, also, were rebels against the English Government, if you could govern yourselves. You obtained the opportunity, thanks to political combinations and generous assistance at the critical moment…..Give us the chance; treat us exactly as you demanded to be treated at the hands of England, when you rebelled against her autocratic methods. . . …. Now, here is an unique spectacle-- the Filipinos fighting for liberty, the American people fighting them to give them liberty. . . . You declared war with Spain for the sake of Humanity. You announced to the world that your programme was to set Cuba free, in conformity with your constitutional principles. One of your ablest officials gave it as his opinion that the Filipinos were far more competent to govern themselves than the Cuban people were.[footnoteRef:6] [6: Admiral George Dewey, telegram to the Dept. of the Navy, 23 June 1898: “[T]his people are far superior in their intelligence and more capable of self government than the natives of Cuba, and I am familiar with both races." ] You entered into an alliance with our chiefs at Hong Kong and at Singapore, and you promised us your aid and protection in our attempt to form a government on the principles and after the model of the government of the United States. ... In combination with our forces, you compelled Spain to surrender..... Joy abounded in every heart, and all went well...until…the Government at Washington….commenced by ignoring all promises that had been made and….by ignoring the Philippine people, their personality and rights, and treating them as a common enemy— In the face of the world you emblazon humanity and Liberty upon your standard, while you cast political constitution to the winds and attempt to trample down and exterminate a brave
- 101. people whose onlycrime is that they are fighting for their liberty.[footnoteRef:7] [7: "Aguinaldo's Case Against the United States, "North American Review, No. 514 (September 1899), pp. 425-432.] Dissecting Images to Clarify Motivation Historically, people have not been well educated. During the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, illiteracy was widespread throughout the United States. In an effort to increase political interest and participation among the poorly educated, cartoons were produced. A few artists, such as Thomas Nast, became well known for their ability to translate political messages through art. "A Bigger Job Than He Thought For. Uncle Sam—Behave, you Fool! Darn Me, If I Ain’t Most Sorry I undertook to Rescue You.” Personification of Emilio Aguinaldo and the United States. c. 1899 [footnoteRef:8] [8: The image rights for academic use are held by Granger Academic and are held in The Granger Collection. The image is also the cover photo of Donald Dewey’s The Art of Ill Will: The Story of American Political Cartoons, New York University Press, 2008.] "Before the United States intervened in behalf of these oppressed peoples. Philippines-Spanish oppression. Hawaii- Industrial slavery. Porto Rico, Cuba-Spanish yoke. Isthmus of Panama-Quinine. After the United States had rescued them from their oppression. Philippines-Philippine Assembly, Education, Busine[ss] Prosperity. Hawaii-Prosperity. Porto Rico- Prosperity. Cuba-Self gov't, prosperity. Panama Canal Zone- Health." [footnoteRef:9] [9: John T. McCutcheon, “What Has the United States Fought For,” in Chicago Tribune, 1914. Reprinted in Mark C. Anderson’s “What’s to Be Done With ‘Em?: Images of Mexican Cultural Backwardness, Racial Limitations and Moral Decrepitude in the United States Press 1913-1915,” Mexican Studies, Winter Vol. 14, No. 1]
- 102. Above: Political cartoonsatirizing American and European imperialism made by J.S. Pughe in 1899. From the Library of Congress. Below: “A Quiet Little Game. I wonder what card Uncle Sam has in his hand.” Uncle Sam seated in restaurant looking at bill of fare containing "Cuba steak," "Porto Rico pig," etc. and talking to waiter "McKinley." [footnoteRef:10] [10: “Well, I Hardly Know Which To Take First!” The Boston Globe, 1898 May 28. Library of Congress. ] Week 4: Nursing Theory (Orig Post Due Wednesday, Responses Due Sunday) 44 unread replies.44 replies. Purpose The purpose of the graded collaborative discussions is to engage faculty and students in an interactive dialogue to assist the student in organizing, integrating, applying, and critically appraising knowledge regarding advanced nursing practice. Scholarly information obtained from credible sources as well as professional communication are required. Application of information to professional experiences promotes the analysis and use of principles, knowledge, and information learned and related to real-life professional situations. Meaningful dialogue among faculty and students fosters the development of a learning community as ideas, perspectives, and knowledge are shared. Activity Learning Outcomes Through this discussion, the student will demonstrate the ability
- 103. to: · Demonstrate logicaland creative thinking in the analysis and application of a theory to nursing practice. (PO 2 and 5) Weeks 2, 3, 5, 6, · Examine broad theoretical concepts as foundational to advanced nursing practice roles. (PO 1 and 2) Weeks 1, 2, 3, 4 · Analyze theories from nursing and relevant fields with respect to the components, relationship among the components, and application to advanced nursing practice. (PO 1) Weeks 4, 5, 6 Due Date: Sunday, 11:59pm MT A 10% late penalty will be imposed for discussions posted after the deadline on Wednesday, regardless of the number of days late. NOTHING will be accepted after 11:59pm MT on Sunday (i.e. student will receive an automatic 0). Week 8 discussion closes on Saturday at 11:59pm MT. Total Points Possible: 50 Requirements: Discussion Criteria 1. Application of Course Knowledge: The student post contributes unique perspectives or insights gleaned from personal experience or examples from the healthcare field. The student must accurately and fully discuss the topic for the week in addition to providing personal or professional examples. The student must completely answer the entire initial question. 2. Engagement in Meaningful Dialogue: The student responds to a student peer and course faculty to further dialogue. · Peer Response: The student responds substantively to at least one topic-related post by a student peer. A substantive post adds content or insights or asks a question that will add to the learning experience and/or generate discussion. · A post of “I agree” with a repeat of the other student’s post does not count as a substantive post. A collection of shallow posts does not equal a substantive post.
- 104. · The peerresponse must occur on a separate day from the initial posting. · The peer response must occur before Sunday, 11:59 p.m. MT. · Faculty Response: The student responds substantively to at least one question by course faculty. The faculty question may be directed to the student, to another student, or to the entire class. · · A post of “I agree” with a repeat of the faculty’s post does not count as a substantive post. A collection of shallow posts does not equal a substantive post. · The faculty response must occur on a separate day from the initial posting. 3. Integration of Evidence: The student post provides support from a minimum of one scholarly in-text citation with a matching reference AND assigned readings OR online lessons, per discussion topic per week. · What is a scholarly resource? A scholarly resource is one that comes from a professional, peer- reviewed publication (e.g., journals and government reports suc h as those from the FDA or CDC). · Contains references for sources cited · Written by a professional or scholar in the field and indicates credentials of the author(s) · Is no more than 5 years old for clinical or research articles · What is not considered a scholarly resource? · Newspaper articles and layperson literature (e.g., Readers Digest, Healthy Life Magazine, Food, and Fitness) · Information from Wikipedia or any wiki · Textbooks · Website homepages · The weekly lesson · Articles in healthcare and nursing-oriented trade magazines, such as Nursing Made Incredibly Easy and RNMagazine (Source: What is
- 105. a scholarly article.docx;Created 06/09 CK/CL Revised: 02/17/11, 09/02/11 nlh/clm) · Can the lesson for the week be used as a scholarly source? · Information from the weekly lesson can be cited in a posting; however, it is not to be the sole source used in the post. · Are resources provided from CU acceptable sources (e.g., the readings for the week)? · Not as a sole source within the post. The textbook and/or assigned (required) articles for the week can be used, but another outside source must be cited for full credit. Textbooks are not considered scholarly sources for the purpose of discussions. · Are websites acceptable as scholarly resources for discussions? · Yes, if they are documents or data cited from credible websites. Credible websites usually end in .gov or .edu; however, some .org sites that belong to professional associations (e.g., American Heart Association, National League for Nursing, American Diabetes Association) are also considered credible websites. Websites ending with .com are not to be used as scholarly resources. 4. Professionalism in Communication: The post presents information in logical, meaningful, and understandable sequence, and is clearly relevant to the discussion topic. Grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation are accurate. 5. Wednesday Participation Requirement: The student provides a substantive response to the graded discussion question(s) or topic(s), posted by the course faculty (not a response to a peer), by Wednesday, 11:59 p.m. MT of each week. 6. Total Participation Requirement: The student provides at least three substantive posts (one to the initial question or topic, one to a student peer, and one to a faculty question) on two different days during the week. DISCUSSION CONTENT
- 106. Category Points % Description Application of CourseKnowledge: 15 30 Answers the initial discussion question(s)/topic(s), demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the concepts for the week. Engagement in Meaningful Dialogue With Peers and Faculty 10 20 Responds to a student peer AND course faculty furthering the dialogue by providing more information and clarification, adding depth to the conversation Integration of Evidence 15 30 Assigned readings OR online lesson AND at least one outside scholarly source are included. The scholarly source is: 1) evidence- based, 2) scholarly in nature, 3) published within the last 5 year s 40 80% Total CONTENT Points= 40 pts DISCUSSION FORMAT Category Points %
- 107. Description Grammar and Communication 5 10 Presentsinformation using clear and concise language in an organized manner Reference Citation 5 10 References have complete information as required by APA In-text citations included for all references AND references included for all in-text citation 10 20% Total FORMAT Points= 10 pts DISCUSSION TOTAL= 50 points Preparing the Assignment Identify your specialty area of NP practice. Select a nursing theory, borrowed theory, or interdisciplinary theory provided in the lesson plan or one of your own findings. Address the following: · Origin · Meaning and scope · Logical adequacy · Usefulness and simplicity · Generalizability · Testability Finally, provide an example how the theory could be used to improve or evaluate the quality of practice in your specific setting. What rationale can you provide that validates the theory
- 108. as applicable tothe role of the nurse practitioner. References to use in assignment Bond, A. E., Eshah, N. F., Bani-Khaled, M., Hamad, A. O., Habashneh, S., Kataua', H., . . . Maabreh, R. (2011). Who uses nursing theory? A univariate descriptive analysis of five years' research articles. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 25, 404-409. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6712.2010.00835.x Desbiens, J., Gagnon, J., & Fillion, L. (2012). Development of a shared theory in palliative care to enhance nursing competence. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(9), 2113-2124. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05917.x McEwen, M. & Willis, E. (2014). Theoretical basis for nursing (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. McEwen, M. (2014). Theories form the biomedical sciences. In M.McEwen & E. Willis (Eds.), Theoretical basis for nursing (4th ed.) (pp.331-353). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Melnyk, B. M., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2011). Evidence-based practice in nursing and healthcare: A guide to best practice (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Oberleitner, M. G. (2014). Theories, models, and frameworks from leadership and management. In M.McEwen & E. Willis (Eds.), Theoretical basis for nursing (4th ed.) (pp.354-385). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Parker, M. E., & Smith, M. C. (2015). Nursing theories and nursing practice (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis Company. Villarruel, A. M., Bishop, T. L., Simpson, E. M., Jemmott, L.
- 109. S., & Fawcett,J. (2001). Borrowed theories, shared theories, and the advancement of nursing knowledge. Nursing Science Quarterly, 14(2), 158-163.