This document provides information about nuclear proliferation in three main sections: 1. It describes the technology behind nuclear weapons, including how fission and fusion weapons work and how they can be delivered via ballistic missiles. 2. It outlines the history of nuclear control efforts since 1945, including nonproliferation treaties and initiatives by international organizations to restrict nuclear development and trade. 3. It discusses motivations for both pursuing and not pursuing nuclear weapons, such as strategic deterrence, prestige, and external political pressures. Countries' nuclear status is also reviewed.

1. Nuclear Proliferation
Week Eleven

2. This Week
This is Our Last Week!

3. This Week
Nuclear Proliferation (Howlett, pp.384 - 397)
- Weaponry
- Proliferation
- Control
Exam Revision

4. Nuclear Weapons Technology
• Development is a complex process, likely state led
• Very different to nuclear reactors
– Reactors aim for a steady, regulated output
• Heat is removed from the nuclear chain, to generate power
– Weapons aim for uncontrolled, rapid explosion
• Fission Weapons: Atoms split rapidly, causing a chain
reaction and an explosion
• Fusion Weapons: Fission provides the primary ignition, then
compressing/heating hydrogen atoms for volatility

5. Nuclear Weapons Technology
• Can be acquired ‘off-the-shelf’ by purchase or
theft of a device.
• Nuclear technology is more likely to be acquired
by a range of infrastructural development: –
–
–
–
–
Radiological technologies
Nuclear technologies
Conventional technologies
Computational technologies
Electronic technologies

6. Nuclear Weapons Technology
• Often ‘delivered’ via ballistic missiles: offers the ability
strike from range. This technology is now
commonplace
• Nuclear weapons do damage in distinctive forms. What
are they?
Blast Damage
Heat/Thermal Radiation
Nuclear Radiation
• These weapons all cause ‘EMP’ disruption. What is
this?

7. Nuclear Weaponry
• United Nations Commission for Conventional
Armaments created a new classification in
1948 – the ‘WMD’ or ‘Weapon of Mass
Destruction’
• Conceptual focus recently shifted to CBRN –
chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear
to differentiate between these weapon types.

8. So Who Has Nuclear Weaponary?
There are five states acknowledged as nuclear
states by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons. Who are they?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
China (since 1964)
France (since 1960)
Russia/Soviet Union (since 1949)
United Kingdom (since 1952)
USA (since 1945)

9. So Who Has Nuclear Weaponary?
There are, however, states which have
developed the necessary technology but are not
on the list. Howlett (p.384) list two examples: 1. India
2. Pakistan
They demonstrated this technology by
conducting nuclear tests and ballistic missiles
launches in May 2008

10. So Who Doesn’t Want Them?
Whilst areas such as South Asia have shown a clear desire
for nuclear capabilities, other regions aim to become a
‘NWFZ’. What is an ‘NWFZ’?
A Nuclear Weapons Free Zone
Which world regions has this encompassed?
Latin America
South Pacific
South East Asia
Central Asia
Africa

11. Motivations: Why Have Them?
• Strategic: Shift from the perspective that nuclear
weapons are for war-fighting, towards notions of
deterrence. Brodie (1946) argued that these
weapons are only useful in their non-use, as a
deterrent, as cultural norms prohibit their use
• Prestige: Development to raise the strategic
profile of a nation or its leaders – ownership of
‘nukes’ gives a greater influence, preventing
undue outside influence
• Determinism: Once the technology is
developed, why not develop the weapons

12. Motivations: Why Not Have Them?
• Strategic: alliance with other non-nuclear states.
• Technological difficulties
• Perceived risk : a belief that the weapons would
increase vulnerability – terrorists may attack
nuclear facilities. Events such as 9/11 showed a
willingness to go to such extremes.
• External political pressures
It is sometimes unclear who has and who hasn’t
got these weapons! Iraq and Iran are examples of
this.

13. Nuclear Control: 1945-1970
• Effort to constraint acquisition began in 1945
• 1946: UN Atomic Energy Commission established
 Aimed to eliminate weapons; safeguarding energy production
 Recommendations ignored due to tensions between the US
and Soviet Russia
• 1953: Atoms for Peace Speech (Eisenhower)

Benefits of atomic power for international community
• 1957: International Atomic Energy Agency established
• 1958-1961: Attempt to negotiation ban on testing
between Soviet Union, UK and USA – no agreement on
testing/disarmament, as there was no means to detect
cheating

14. Nuclear Control: 1945-1970
• 1963: Partial test ban agreed, prohibiting testing
in the atmosphere, outer space or underwater.
• 1961: UN General Assembly adopts Irish
Resolution – limitations on acquisition/transfer
of weapons
• 1965: Resolution 2028 passed, a forerunner for
NNPT in 1970
• 1967: NWFZ treaty opened for Latin America
• 1970: Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty enters
force.

15. Anti-Proliferation Since 1970
• 1971: Initial guidelines established for nuclear trade
by the IAEA.
• 1978: Atomic states gave assurances about weapons
use at UN special session: only China said that they
would not be the first to use them
• 1987: Guidelines established for the sale of nuclear
capable ballistic weapons/cruise missiles: known as
Missile Technology Control Regime and aimed to
limit the risks of nuclear proliferation by controlling
transfers of technology p.392 (since expanded to
many other forms of missile systems)

16. Anti-Proliferation Since 1970
• 1995: Resolution on the Middle East highlighted
problems with universal adherrance/trust
• 1996: Comprehensive test ban opened for
signatures, but is yet to be ratified by the
necessary 44 states.
• 2002: Hague Code of Conduct developed
mandate behaviour in the transfer of missiles
and missile parts.
• 2010: Nuclear Security Summit convened to
tighten security of radiological/nuclear material

17. A full chronology is in the textbook!
Pages 394-395

18. Now for a happier topic!

19. The Exam!

20. Exam Revision
Preparing for the January Exams

21. The Exam
Nine Topics in the Module: 1. Anarchy
2. Realism
3. Liberalism
4. Human Security
5. International Political Economy
6. Middle East
7. Asia-Pacific
8. Terrorism

22. The Exam
There are only eight questions on the exam:
1. Realism
2. Liberalism
3. Human Security
4. International Political Economy
5. Asia-Pacific
6. Middle East
7. Terrorism
8. Nuclear Proliferation
You will answer two questions, not one on the same
topic as your essay paper!

23. Approaching the Material
• You only have to answer two questions: that
does not mean you should only revise two of
the subject areas.
• By all means discount some, but prepare more
than two areas in case the questions aren’t
favourable
• Know specifics: What do the theorists say?
What case-study examples are there?
• Summarise the key points: what you know you
will need to know… Fit it all on one page!

24. General Advice
Some Strategies and Tips

25. Time
• Don’t leave it until the last
minute: most people don’t
benefit from ‘cramming’
• Know when you are able to
revise. Organise your
studies ahead of time work around the
distractions of hobbies, paid
employment or university
commitments.
• Do you work best in the
morning, or in the evening?

26. Space
• Have you room for your
textbooks and notes?
• Have you got enough
light? Natural light is
preferable!
• Is your chair comfortable?
• Are any distractions out
of sight? Difficult to revise
around computer games
or the television!
• Do you need order, or
clutter?

27. Noise
• Can you work in
silence?
• If not, find light
background music that
is unobtrusive – you can
find many playlists on
YouTube

28. Visual Aids
• Charts and diagrams
can be helpful in
organising your work
• Try to condense your
notes in single pages

29. Friends and Family
• Revise in groups: you
will be able to keep
each other focussed
• Explain the topics to
housemates, parent, sib
lings or the family cat!

30. Take a Break!
• Know when to stop! You
can’t revise all day
every day. Optimise
your time and don’t feel
guilty about taking a
break!

31. Misc.
• Eat well
– Don’t just eat junk food
– Fish, Nuts, Seeds, Yoghurts and Blueberries are all
proven to aid concentration
• Be well prepared on the day
– Get things ready the night before
– Know how long you need to get to the venue
– Drink lots of water

32. Any Questions?
Any Advice That You Want to Share?

33. The PowerPoint Presentations
They are now online!

34. Goodbye and Good Luck!