The document provides a comprehensive overview of grammar concepts related to nouns, pronouns, and other parts of speech. It defines different types of nouns such as concrete and abstract nouns. It also discusses the formation of plural nouns, irregular plural nouns, possessive nouns, and compound nouns. The document then covers personal pronouns including subject, object, and possessive cases. It defines other pronouns such as reflexive, intensive, interrogative, demonstrative, relative and indefinite pronouns.

1. Grammar
PREPARED BY: T. JILLIANMAYE

2. Noun
: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.

3. Concrete Nouns
Person Place Thing
man river dog
Mrs. Jones Paris book
doctor mountains sports car
Maddie home Ferrari
Concrete nouns name people, places, or things that you can touch, see, hear, smell, or taste.

4. Abstract Nouns
Idea Emotion
love happiness
intelligence anger
justice excitement
religion fear
time surprise
Abstract nouns name ideas, concepts, or emotions. These nouns are intangible, which means
you cannot touch, see, hear, smell, or taste them using your five senses.

5. Lesson 2: Common and Proper Nouns
Common Proper
boy ⇒ James
river ⇒ Mississippi River
car ⇒ Ford
doctor ⇒ Doctor Jefferson
town ⇒ Rockledge
candy bar ⇒ Baby Ruth
Common nouns name any person, place, thing, or idea. They are not capitalized unless they
come at the beginning of a sentence. Proper nouns are the names of specific people, places,
things, or ideas. Proper nouns should always be capitalized.

6. Lesson 3: Singular and Plural Nouns
Singular means only one. Plural means more than one.

7. Rule Examples
Most nouns
Add s to form the plural. cat ⇒ cats
truck ⇒ trucks
bug ⇒ bugs
Nouns that end
in s, sh, x, ch, or z
Add es to form the
plural. For words that
end in z, add an
extra z before the es.
Hint:
It is too hard to
pronounce the
words without
the e. Try it –
buss, brushs,
foxs... You sound
like a snake!
bus ⇒ buses
brush ⇒ brushes
fox ⇒ foxes
beach ⇒ beaches
quiz ⇒ quizzes
Nouns ending
in f or fe
Some nouns ending
in f or fe just add s.
Sometimes it is
necessary to change
the f to a v. In that case,
always end the word
with es.
Hint:
Check a dictionary
if you are unsure
which rule a noun
follows.
roof ⇒ roofs
safe ⇒ safes
shelf ⇒ shelves
wife ⇒ wives
Rule Examples
Nouns that end
in vowel + y
Add s to form the
plural.
donkey ⇒ donkeys
highway ⇒
highways
Nouns that end
in vowel + o
Add s to form the
plural.
oreo ⇒ oreos
scenario ⇒
scenarios
Nouns that end
in consonant + y
Change the y to i and
add es to form the
plural.
family ⇒ families
trophy ⇒ trophies
Nouns that end
in consonant + o
Easy rule:
Usually add es except
for musical terms.
Complicated rule:
Some nouns that end
in consonant
+ o add es. Many can
be spelled either way.
Look in the dictionary if
you want to be sure.
These nouns always
add es: potato, tomato,
hero, echo, banjo,
embargo, veto,
torpedo.
Here are the preferred
spellings of some
plural nouns:
buffaloes, dominoes,
mosquitoes,
volcanoes, tornadoes,
ghettos, mangos,
Regular examples:
potato ⇒ potatoes
dingo ⇒ dingoes
piano ⇒ pianos
soprano ⇒
sopranos

8. Exceptions Examples
Words from foreign
languages,
including musical
terms
Simply add s. taco ⇒ tacos
kimono ⇒ kimonos
aria ⇒ arias
Words that are
proper nouns
Simply add s. Eskimo ⇒ Eskimos
Picasso ⇒ Picassos
Words that are short
forms of longer
words
Simply add s. photo (photograph) ⇒
photos
kilo (kilogram) ⇒ kilos
memo (memorandum)
⇒ memos
Hint: If a musical term or proper noun ends
in s still add es.
chorus ⇒ choruses
Jones ⇒ Joneses

9. Lesson 4: Irregular Plural Nouns
1. Change spelling 2. Spelled the same way
one child ⇒ two children
one foot ⇒ two feet
one tooth ⇒ two teeth
one man ⇒ two men
one fish ⇒ two fish
one sheep ⇒ two sheep
one deer ⇒ two deer

10. 3. Some nouns exist only in the plural form.
binoculars pants
clothes pajamas
glasses scissors
goggles shorts
jitters tweezers

11. Rules for making letters, numbers, and abbreviations plural
 Capital letters - Capital letter + s
I earned straight A’s on my report card, but my sister received all Bs.
 Lowercase - Lowercase italicized letter + apostrophe + s
Why does algebra use so many x's and y's?
 Abbreviation - Abbreviation + s
I used to have a lot of CDs, but now I just listen to my mp3 player.
I've heard that M.D.s go to school for at least 7 years!
 Numbers - Number + s
2s, 3s, and 4s

12. Lesson 5: Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun made up of two or more words. Each word makes
up part of the meaning of the noun.
Compound nouns can be written three ways:
A single word Two words Hyphenated
haircut rain forest self-esteem
toothpaste ice cream brother-in-law

13. When a compound noun is a single word, make it plural by adding s to the end. If the
compound noun is hyphenated or composed of two separate words, remember to add s only
to the word that is plural.
one mother-in-law ⇒ two mothers-in-law
(There are two mothers, not two laws.)
one director general ⇒ two directors general
(There are two directors, not two generals.)

14. Lesson 6: Collective Nouns
A collective noun names a group, which is like a collection of people or things.
family team choir jury committee herd pod
Hint:
Put the word in this test sentence to see if it works: One ______ is a
group.
One team is a group.
One jury is a group.
One herd is a group.

15. Lesson 7: Possessive Nouns
Definition: Possessive nouns show ownership. Possessive comes from the same
root as possession, something you own.

16. Singular Possessives
Add 's to singular words to show possession.
Dog's collar sister's backpack car's engine
(dog + 's) (sister + 's) (car + 's)
If a singular word ends in s, it is still necessary to add 's.
Charles's sneakers Bess's dresses bus's tires
(Charles + 's) (Bess + 's) (bus + 's)

17. Plural Possessives
If you have added an s to make a word plural (for example, cat ⇒ cats), adding 's will sound
ridiculous (cats's). In that case, add only the apostrophe to the end of the word.
Dogs' collars sisters' backpacks cars' engines
(dogs + ') (sisters + ') (cars + ')
Just like singular possessives, plural possessives that don't end in s add 's.
Children's homework fish's bowls octopi's tentacles
(children + 's) (fish + 's) (octopi + 's)

18. If two people own something together, use an 's after the second person
only.
Joe and Mary's car is new. (Both Joe and Mary own the car.)
If two people own two separate things, add 's to each name.
Laurie's and Megan's nails are painted the
same color.
(Each girl has her own
nails.)

19. Jesus' parables were
instructional stories.
Jesus's parables were
instructional stories.
Moses' first tablets were
broken.
Moses's first tablets were
broken.
You may find that certain names ending in s add only an apostrophe. That rule is somewhat old-
fashioned. However, some names, such as Jesus, Moses, Achilles, and Charles Dickens (historical
names that end in a z sound), can end with either an apostrophe or 's.

20. II. Pronouns
Lesson 1: Personal Pronouns
Definition: Pronouns stand in for or replace nouns. This lesson is about personal
pronouns, which replace nouns that refer to people or things.

21. Personal pronouns have:
 Number: They are singular or plural.
 Person: 1st person is the person speaking, 2nd person is the person being spoken to,
and 3rd person is the person being spoken about. You can look at the chart below for
examples.
 Case: Determines how a pronoun is being used in a sentence (subject, object, or
possessive). We'll go over this more in the next lesson.

23. Lesson 2: Cases of Personal Pronouns
Subject Object Possessive
I we me us my, mine our, ours
you you you you your, yours your, yours
he, she, it they him, her, it them his, her, hers, its their, theirs

24. Subject Pronoun
A subject pronoun (also called a nominative pronoun) is used as the subject of a
sentence or as a subject complement following a linking verb.
1. Subject Pronoun as the Subject of a Sentence
A subject pronoun that acts as the subject of a sentence will make sense in the
following test sentence: bit the monster. The subject pronoun will tell us who is
doing the biting.
I bit the monster.
You bit the monster.
He bit the monster.
She bit the monster.
It bit the monster.
We bit the monster.
They bit the
monster.

25. 2. Subject Pronoun as a Subject Complement (Renaming the Subject)
Subject pronouns that are used as subject complements to tell us more information about the
subject. It will fit in this test sentence: The superhero was . In this test sentence, superhero is
the subject, and the subject pronoun tells us who the superhero is.
The superhero was I.
The superhero was you.
The superhero was he.
The superhero was she.
The superhero was it.
The superheroes were we.
The superheroes were they.

26. Object Pronoun
Definition: An object pronoun (also called an objective pronoun) is used as a direct
object, an indirect object, or the object of a preposition.
Direct object: Brandon sent it.
Indirect object: Brandon sent her the package.
Object of a preposition: Brandon sent the package to her.

27. Possessive Pronoun
Definition: possessive pronouns show ownership.
Possessive Adjectives
-- they always modify nouns
My pencil fell on the floor,
and his pencil ended up
on her desk.

28. Possessive Pronouns
These pronouns are different from the others because they don't modify nouns.
They completely replace the nouns they refer to.
Hey! That's mine, not yours!

29. Lesson 3: Challenging Uses of Cases
1. Pronouns in Compounds
Common Error #1: Using Object Pronouns in Place of Subject Pronouns
Error Correction
Jesse and me went to school. Jesse and I went to school.
Him and me bought a new puppy last week. He and I bought a new puppy last week.
Me and them took the bus. We took the bus.

30. Common Error #2: Using Subject Pronouns in Place of Object Pronouns
Error Correction
He met Jeremy and I. He met Jeremy and me.
Nancy hit Will and I. Nancy hit Will and me.
Is that hot fudge sundae for Carlos and I? Is that hot fudge sundae for Carlos and me?
My brother sat right between you and I. My brother sat right between you and me.
!!! Writing convention suggests that, out of courtesy, when using the first person pronouns I or me, we
generally put these pronouns last, allowing the other names and pronouns to go first.
Sam and I saw a movie on Saturday.
I wrote a story about my cat and me. (Not me and my cat.)

31. 2. Pronouns Before Nouns
Error Correction
Us writers enjoy writing fiction. We writers enjoy writing fiction.
The teacher explained the lesson to we students. The teacher explained the lesson to us students.
3. Pronouns After Than or As
Error Correction
Diana is a better speller than me. Diana is a better speller than I.
He knows a lot more than her. He knows a lot more than she.
She plays basketball just as well as me. She plays basketball just as well as I.
We grew as much as them. We grew as much as they.

32. Lesson 4: Reflexive and Intensive
Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Definition: A reflexive pronoun tells us that whoever performs the action in a
sentence is also the one on the receiving end of that action.
Reflexive Pronouns
Singular Plural
myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
himself
herself
itself
themselves
The puppy saw itself in the mirror.
Jack decided to reward himself with a dinner out.

33. !!!Do not use reflexive pronouns instead of subject or object pronouns.
Error Correction
Mark and myself went to the movies. Mark and I went to the movies.
Our teacher gave Sara and myself an
award for the best project.
Our teacher gave Sara and me an
award for the best project.
Nonexistent Reflexive Pronouns
Error Correction
hisself himself
ourself ourselves
theirself, theirselves,
or themself
themselves

34. Intensive Pronouns
Definition: An intensive pronoun emphasizes a preceding noun, which is often
(but not always) the noun immediately before the pronoun. Intensive pronouns look
exactly the same as reflexive pronouns, but they are only used for emphasis.
The queen herself gave the knight the award.
The queen gave the knight the award herself.

35. Intensive vs. Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive Intensive
The queen bought herself a dog.
The queen bought something for herself. She is both
completing and receiving the action in the sentence.
The queen bought the dog herself.
The intensive pronoun herself merely emphasizes the fact that
the queen (not someone else) was the one who bought the
dog.
The queen bought herself a dog.
Did the queen buy the dog for herself, or did she buy it for
someone else? Without the reflexive pronoun, there's no way to
know for sure.
The queen bought the dog herself.
The queen still bought the dog regardless of whether the
intensive pronoun is in the sentence or not.

36. Lesson 5: Interrogative Pronouns
Definition: Interrogative pronouns ask questions.
Interrogative Pronouns
Things Things or People People
What Which Who Whom Whose
What is used to ask about things. Do not use it to ask about people.
There's a really strange mixture in that pot. What did you put in there?
What is being used to ask about the ingredients in the pot.

37. Which is used to show a choice among two or more items.
Of all the items on the menu, which do you recommend?
Note:
Which can also be used to indicate a choice or distinction among two or more people.
I see two girls making a sand castle. Which is your sister and which is your cousin?
Whose is a possessive pronoun used to find out whom something belongs to.
I see a stray flip flop on the floor. Whose is it?
Who's going to the concert? ⇒ Who is going to the concert?
I found some concert tickets on the ground. Whose are they?
Note: Who’s and Whose

38. Who vs. Whom
 Who is a subject pronoun.
Who wants to go hiking this weekend?
Who is the man with the long beard?
 Whom is an object pronoun.
Whom do you know in this class?
Whom is the object of the verb know.
Whom are you wrapping that gift for?
Whom is the object of the preposition for.

39. Lesson 6: Demonstrative Pronouns
Definition: Demonstrative pronouns show or point to objects or people.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Close to Speaker Far from Speaker
Singular This That
Plural These Those
This and that refer to singular objects or people.
This is an expensive store.
That is a very tall building.
These and those refer to plural objects or people.
These are very expensive shoes.
Those are the tallest skyscrapers in the city.

40. Lesson 7: Relative Pronouns
Definition: Relative pronouns show a relationship between a noun and a clause.
Relative Pronouns
That Which Who Whom Whose

41. Examples of Relative Pronouns
I like roller coasters that have lots of loops.
(that = roller coasters)
Ice cream, which is my favorite dessert, tastes very refreshing on a hot summer day.
(which = ice cream)
Teachers who have a sense of humor are easy to get along with.
(who = teachers)
My cousin, who is from Illinois, visits me every year.
(who = my cousin)
The friend whom you saw yesterday wants to go out again tonight.
(whom = friend)
The man whose shirt was stained rushed home for a change of clothes.
(whose = the man's)

42. For combining two sentences:
The team won the championship. The team went to Disneyland to celebrate.
The team that won the championship went to Disneyland to celebrate.
Differences:
Interrogative: Whom did you ask about the movie times?
Relative: Dave is the person whom you asked about the movie times.
Demonstrative: That is the book I found.
Relative: I found the book that you lost. (book I found = book you lost)

43. Lesson 8: Indefinite Pronouns
Definition: An indefinite pronoun is one that doesn't refer to a specific person or
thing.
Indefinite Pronouns*
Singular Plural Singular or Plural
another
each
either
much
neither
one
other
anybody, anyone, anything
everybody, everyone,
everything
nobody, no one, nothing
somebody, someone,
something
both
few
many
others
several
all
any
more
most
none
some

44. Example:
Of these two sandwiches, neither looks like something I would eat.
Can no one tell me the answer to this math problem?
This solution is one of many.
Some are better than others.
Many indefinite pronouns can also be used as adjectives.
Pronoun: Either will be acceptable to my aunt.
Adjective: Either set of dishes will be acceptable to my aunt.
Pronoun: There are 35 students in this class and several arrived late today.
Adjective: Several students arrived late today.

45. Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are used so that we don't have to repeat people's names when
talking about who did what.
To replace two nouns, use each other.
Jorge and Melanie help each other study for tests.
Stephanie and Laurie bumped into each other in the hall.
To replace three or more nouns, use one another.
The police, firefighters, and paramedics help one another respond to emergencies.
Students always bump into one another in our crowded hallways.

46. Lesson 9: Pronoun Agreement
Definition: The antecedent goes before the pronoun. It is the noun that the pronoun replaces. A
pronoun must match, or agree, with its antecedent in number, person, and gender.
Number Agreement
Lisa didn't come to school because she was sick.
After Sasha and Aaron climbed the Great Wall of China, they were totally exhausted.
The two dogs disappeared as they raced over the hill.
John and Randy brought their books to class.
John or Randy brought his book to class.
Neither John nor Randy brought his book to class.

47. Person Agreement
My name is Kitty and I am an English teacher.
The pronoun I replaces the noun Kitty. You would not say My name is Kitty and Kitty is an English
teacher.
Carmen felt nervous when Melvin asked her to dance.
The little fish knew it was doomed when the shark came around the corner.
I'm going to the movies with Joey and Michael. Do you know them?
Gender Agreement
The blind man was about to walk into the street, but I ran over and helped him.
The woman arrived at the store, but she had forgotten her wallet and had to go back home.

48. Error Corrections
A new doctor must pass their certification exam before getting a
license.
A new doctor must pass his or her certification exam before getting
a license.
We don't know the gender of the doctor.
New doctors must pass their certification exams before getting
licenses.
Notice how you also have to make the
words exam and license plural in this sentence. That's because
each doctor takes his or her own exam and receives his or her own
license.
Unknown Gender
 Use his or her
 Their is acceptable in spoken English
 To fix; Make the subject plural

49. Lesson 10: Challenges in Pronoun
Agreement
Challenge 1: Interrupting Phrases
Jeremy, one of the waiters, dropped his tray.
Jeremy = his, but waiters = their. Don't use the plural pronoun their if Jeremy was
the only waiter who dropped his tray.

50. Challenge 2: When the Reference Is Unclear
Unclear Pronouns Corrections
Joan and Marcie went to work. She was late. Which one was late? The pronoun she could refer to either
Joan or Marcie, so it's better to use the name instead of the
pronoun.
Joan and Marcie went to work. Marcie was late.
Joan and Marcie went to work. Joan was late.
My father was just like his grandfather, but he was not as tall. Who was not as tall? He could refer to
either father or grandfather.
My father was just like my grandfather, but my father was not
as tall.

51. Challenge 3: Pronoun Shifts
Don't switch pronouns midway through your sentence. If you start with the first person (I, we, etc.) or
third person (she, they, etc.), stick with it.
Pronoun Shift Correction
First ⇒ Second We went to the top of the Sears
Tower where you could see the entire
city of Chicago.
We went to the top of the Sears Tower where we could
see the entire city of Chicago.
Second ⇒ Third When you go to the
movies, people can buy their ticket in
advance.
When you go to the movies, you can buy your ticket in
advance.
OR
When people go to the movies, they can
buy their tickets in advance.
Third ⇒ Second A police officer has a dangerous job
because you often put your life at
risk.
A police officer has a dangerous job because he or
she often puts his or her life at risk.
Police officers have a dangerous job
because they often put their lives at risk.

52. Challenge 4: Collective Nouns
The team won its last game.
In this sentence, the collective noun is singular. The team was working as a whole to win.
The team took their uniforms home and washed them.
In this sentence, the collective noun is plural because the team members individually took
their uniforms home to wash them.

53. Lesson 11: Indefinite Pronoun
Agreement
Indefinite Pronouns
Singular Plural Singular or Plural
another
each
either
much
neither
one
other
anybody, anyone, anything
everybody, everyone,
everything
nobody, no one, nothing
somebody, someone,
something
both
few
many
others
several
all
any
more
most
none
some

54. 1. Singular indefinite pronouns take singular possessives, and plural indefinite pronouns take plural
possessives.
Everybody needs his or her pencil.
(singular indefinite pronoun + singular possessive pronoun)
Many will need their tablets.
(plural indefinite pronoun + plural possessive pronoun)
2. Indefinite pronoun followed by a prepositional phrase like this: of the + noun
Each of the students is missing his or her homework.
Many of the students are missing their homework.
3. Either singular or plural
All of the cake is missing its frosting.
All of the cake slices are missing their frosting.
All of the students are missing their notebooks.