This document summarizes the different types of muscle contractions. It describes isotonic contractions where the load remains constant as the muscle changes length. Isokinetic contractions occur when muscle fibers shorten at a constant velocity. Isometric contractions prevent muscle shortening so tension develops at a constant length. The same internal events occur in each type of contraction, but they differ in whether the muscle shortens or changes length. Motor units, consisting of a motor neuron and muscle fibers it innervates, are also discussed.
2nd and 3rd September 2011,a General Lecture Theatre, Dr Chirantan Mandal, Dr Avik Basu, Dr Dipayan Sen Dr Ushnish Adhikari,Dr Srimanti Bhattacharya, Dr Shubham Presided by Dr Arnab Sengupta (Physiology Dept Medical College Kolkata)
2nd and 3rd September 2011,a General Lecture Theatre, Dr Chirantan Mandal, Dr Avik Basu, Dr Dipayan Sen Dr Ushnish Adhikari,Dr Srimanti Bhattacharya, Dr Shubham Presided by Dr Arnab Sengupta (Physiology Dept Medical College Kolkata)
2nd and 3rd September 2011,a General Lecture Theatre, Dr Chirantan Mandal, Dr Avik Basu, Dr Dipayan Sen Dr Ushnish Adhikari,Dr Srimanti Bhattacharya, Dr Shubham Presided by Dr Arnab Sengupta (Physiology Dept Medical College Kolkata)
2nd and 3rd September 2011,a General Lecture Theatre, Dr Chirantan Mandal, Dr Avik Basu, Dr Dipayan Sen Dr Ushnish Adhikari,Dr Srimanti Bhattacharya, Dr Shubham Presided by Dr Arnab Sengupta (Physiology Dept Medical College Kolkata)
2nd and 3rd September 2011,a General Lecture Theatre, Dr Chirantan Mandal, Dr Avik Basu, Dr Dipayan Sen Dr Ushnish Adhikari,Dr Srimanti Bhattacharya, Dr Shubham Presided by Dr Arnab Sengupta (Physiology Dept Medical College Kolkata)
2nd and 3rd September 2011,a General Lecture Theatre, Dr Chirantan Mandal, Dr Avik Basu, Dr Dipayan Sen Dr Ushnish Adhikari,Dr Srimanti Bhattacharya, Dr Shubham Presided by Dr Arnab Sengupta (Physiology Dept Medical College Kolkata)
Learn about how our muscle functioning everyday. And check out the muscle roles!! Simple notes, Simple slides for the beginner person who's attracted to science.
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Learn about how our muscle functioning everyday. And check out the muscle roles!! Simple notes, Simple slides for the beginner person who's attracted to science.
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The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
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Large motor neurons originates from the anterior horn cells of spinal cord
They are myelinated nerve fibers
They innervates skeletal muscles
Each nerve fiber after entering the muscle belly, branches and stimulates 3- several hundreds of skeletal muscle fibers
Each nerve ending makes a junction – Neuromuscular Junction
NMJ is present at midpoint of the muscle
AP initiated in the muscle fiber by the nerve impulse, travels in both directions towards the muscle fiber ends
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
1. Molecular Mechanism of
Muscle Contraction
Dr. Sai Sailesh Kumar G
Associate Professor
Department of Physiology
NRIIMS
Email: dr.goothy@gmail.com
2. Explain
How muscle tension is transmitted to bone
Beneficial effect
Causes of fatigue
First site of fatigue in intact human being
Why muscles are stiff during rigor mortis
3. The three primary types of contraction
Isotonic
Isokinetic
Isometric
4. The three primary types of contraction
Not all muscle contractions shorten muscles and move bones.
For a muscle to shorten during contraction, the tension developed in
the muscle must exceed the forces that oppose movement of the bone
to which the muscle’s insertion is attached
In the case of elbow flexion, the opposing force or load is the
weight of an object being lifted.
5. The three primary types of contraction
When you flex your elbow without lifting any external object,
there is still a load,
albeit a minimal one—
the weight of your forearm being moved against the force of gravity
6. The three primary types of contraction
In an isotonic contraction, the load remains constant
as the muscle changes length.
7. The three primary types of contraction
In an isokinetic contraction, the velocity of shortening remains constant
as the muscle changes length.
8. The three primary types of contraction
In an isometric contraction, the muscle is prevented from shortening
so tension develops at constant muscle length.
9. The three primary types of contraction
The same internal events occur in isotonic, isokinetic, and isometric contractions
Muscle excitation turns on the tension-generating contractile process;
the cross bridges start cycling;
and filament sliding
shortens the sarcomeres,
which stretches the series-elastic components
to exert forces on the bones at the sites of the muscle’s origin and insertion.
10. Isotonic contraction
Considering your biceps as an example,
assume you are going to lift an object.
When the tension developing in your biceps becomes great enough to overcome
the weight of the object in your hand,
you can lift the object, with the whole muscle shortening in the process.
Because the weight of the object does not change as it is lifted,
this type of contraction is an isotonic (literally, “constant tension”) contraction.
11. Isokinetic contraction
Isokinetic (literally, “constant motion”) contractions occur when muscle fibers
shorten at a constant velocity or speed.
Isokinetic contractions do not take place normally
but can be achieved using special exercise machines set up to require muscle
contraction at a constant velocity throughout the entire range of motion.
One of the proposed advantages of isokinetic exercise is the more rapid
development of muscle strength
12. Isokinetic contraction
Isokinetic (literally, “constant motion”) contractions occur when muscle fibers
shorten at a constant velocity or speed.
Isokinetic contractions do not take place normally
but can be achieved using special exercise machines set up to require muscle
contraction at a constant velocity throughout the entire range of motion.
One of the proposed advantages of isokinetic exercise is the more rapid
development of muscle strength
13. Isometric contraction
What happens if you try to lift an object too heavy for you (that is, if the
tension you can develop in your arm muscles is less than required to
lift the load)?
14. Isometric contraction
isometric contractions are important
for maintaining posture (such as keeping the legs stiff while standing)
and
for supporting objects in a fixed position (such as holding a beverage
between sips).
15. Concentric and Eccentric Contractions
In concentric contractions the muscle shortens,
whereas with eccentric contractions the muscle lengthens
16. Other Contractions
Some skeletal muscles do not attach to bones at both ends but still
produce movement.
For example, tongue muscles are not attached at the free end.
Contractions of tongue muscles maneuver the free, unattached
portion of the tongue to facilitate speech and eating.
17. Other Contractions
External eye muscles attach to the skull at their origin and to the eye,
not another bone, at their insertion.
Contractions of these muscles produce eye movements that enable us
to track moving objects or read.
18. Load-velocity relationship
You can lift light objects requiring little muscle tension quickly,
whereas you can lift very heavy objects only slowly, if at all.
This relationship between load and shortening velocity is a
fundamental property of muscle
19.
20. Load-velocity relationship
load and velocity for shortening are inversely related for concentric
contractions
load and velocity for lengthening are directly related for eccentric
contractions
21. Work done
Muscle accomplishes work in a physical sense only when an object is
moved.
Work is defined as force multiplied by distance.
Force can be equated to the muscle tension required to overcome the load
(the weight of the object).
The amount of work accomplished by a contracting muscle therefore
depends on how much an object weighs and how far it is moved.
22. Work done – Isometric contraction
In an isometric contraction when no object is moved, the muscle
contraction’s efficiency as a producer of external work is zero.
All energy consumed by the muscle during the contraction is
converted to heat.
23. Work done – Isotonic contraction
In an isotonic or isokinetic contraction,
the muscle’s efficiency is about 25%.
Of the energy consumed by the muscle during the contraction, 25% is
realized as external work,
whereas the remaining 75% is converted to heat
24. Homeostasis
Much of this heat is not wasted energy
because it is used in maintaining body temperature.
In fact, shivering—a form of involuntarily induced skeletal muscle
contraction—is a well-known means of increasing heat production on a
cold day
25. Homeostasis
Much of this heat is not wasted energy
because it is used in maintaining body temperature.
In fact, shivering—a form of involuntarily induced skeletal muscle
contraction—is a well-known means of increasing heat production on a
cold day
26. Similarities in isometric and isotonic contractions
Muscle excitation
Cross bridge formation
Filaments sliding
27. Isometric contraction
1. Muscle does not shorten
2. Contract against force with out
shortening ( fixed length)
3. Does not involve joint movement
4. Tension increases
5. No work done
6. Less release of heat
Isotonic contraction
1. Muscle shorten
2. Shorten against fix load
3. Involve joint movement
4. Tension constant
5. Work done
6. More release of heat
28. Motor unit
Motor neurons are present at anterior gray horn of spinal cord.
Each motor neuron can activate a group of the muscle fibers
through its axon terminals.
A single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates,
together is called motor unit.
It is referred as physiological or functional unit of the muscle.
29.
30.
31. Types of motor units
There are three types of motor units.
Fast motor unit (IIB).
Slow motor unit (I).
Intermediate motor unit (IIA).
This classification is based on type of muscle fibers.
In a motor unit, only one type of muscle fibers are present.
32. Size of the motor unit
The size of motor unit depends on the number of muscle fibers that
a motor neuron innervates.
1. Small motor unit - muscles concerned with fine skilled
movements, number of muscle fibers in a motor unit varies from
2-6. example- middle ear muscles, ocular muscles.
2. Large motor unit – In muscles with gross and crude movements,
the number of muscle fibers in a motor unit varies from 100-600.
example- muscles of back and leg
33. Number of motor units in a muscle
The number of motor units in a muscle fiber vary from few
to few hundreds depending on the size of the muscle.
34. Recruitment of motor units
This depends on force of contraction required.
When there is a need for less force of contraction, fewer and smaller motor units
are activated.
When there is a need for more force of contraction, large and several motor units
are activated.
During prolonged low intensity activity, slow motor units are recruited
During short, high intensity activity, fast motor units are activated.
Motor units are activated asynchronously and this will help in smooth contractions
and delays early onset of fatigue.
35.
36. Recruitment of motor units
It minimizes fatigue by allowing most fatigue-resistant muscle
fibers to be in use.
More fatigable fibers are kept in reserve until needed to
achieve higher forces
Cause smooth contraction and relaxation of muscle
The recruitment of motor units can be studied using
electromyography.
37. Force summation
Adding together individual twitch contractions to increase the
intensity of overall muscle contraction.
It can occur by
Increasing number of motor units contracting simultaneously-
multiple fiber summation
Increasing the frequency of contraction- frequency summation-
leads to tetanization.
38. Force summation
When weak signals were sent to the muscles to contract
from CNS, only small motor units are activated.
As there is an increase in the strength of the stimulus, larger
and larger motor units are recruited.
The phenomenon of activation of large motor units as the
strength of stimulus increase is size principle.
39. Frequency summation
As the frequency increases, there comes a point where each
new contraction occurs before the preceding one is over.
As a result, second contraction is added to first
Total strength of contraction raises progressively, with increase
in frequency.
Tetanization – at higher frequency muscle is only remains in
contraction and no relaxation.
40. Macromotor unit
Seen in poliomyelitis.
Motor neurons are destroyed and leads to paralysis of
corresponding muscle fibers
The neighboring nerve fibers give collateral branches that
supply paralyzed muscle fibers
Results in large motor unit-macromotor unit
41. Motor point
Point on the muscle at which the nerve enters the muscle
to establish contact with the individual muscle fiber.
A good response of the muscle is obtained when the
stimulus is applied at this point.