This document discusses findings from neuroscience research on learning and memory. It provides 4 negative findings and 5 positive findings. The negative findings are: 1) We have no intrinsic motivation to learn academic material, 2) There is no evidence for learning transfer or multiple intelligences, 3) Memories are completely unstable with each recall, 4) Learning does not improve general intelligence. The 5 positive findings are mechanisms that promote short-term learning becoming long-term, including innate learning programs, repetition of information, excitement during learning, eating carbohydrates after learning, and 8-9 hours of sleep after learning.

1. The Neuroscience of LearningThe Neuroscience of Learning
Carlos F. Camargo, PhDCarlos F. Camargo, PhD
Ohana Foundation Lecture Series 2005Ohana Foundation Lecture Series 2005
Korean Education Development InstituteKorean Education Development Institute

2. What is learning?What is learning?
CHANGING the structure &CHANGING the structure &
actions of NEURONS so theyactions of NEURONS so they
HOLDINFORMATION inHOLDINFORMATION in
LONG TERMMEMORY inLONG TERMMEMORY in
TEMPORAL&PARIETALTEMPORAL&PARIETAL
LOBES of the CORTEXLOBES of the CORTEX

4. LEARNING requiresLEARNING requires
NEURONS to CHANGENEURONS to CHANGE

5. Learning requires MANYLearning requires MANY
neuron changesneuron changes
BUTtwo majorchanges areBUTtwo majorchanges are
11 Changing the amounts ofChanging the amounts of
neurotransmitters thatneurotransmitters that
neurons produceneurons produce
2 Changing the connections2 Changing the connections
between neuronsbetween neurons

6. ((1) Learning requires neurons to make1) Learning requires neurons to make
MORE & LESS & DIFFERENT transmittersMORE & LESS & DIFFERENT transmitters

7. (2) Learning requires neurons to make NEW LINKS(2) Learning requires neurons to make NEW LINKS
& DELETE EXISTING LINKS with other neurons& DELETE EXISTING LINKS with other neurons

8. + & -+ & -
Bad NewsBad News &&Good NewsGood News forfor
TeachersTeachers
in Current Neurosciencein Current Neuroscience
FindingsFindings

9. 4 NEGATIVES & 54 NEGATIVES & 5
POSITIVESPOSITIVES
44 importantimportant
negativenegative
findings fromfindings from
neuroscienceneuroscience
5 important5 important
positivepositive
findings fromfindings from
neuroscienceneuroscience

10. Bad news finding # 1Bad news finding # 1
WEHAVEWEHAVENONO
INTRINSIC MOTIVATIONINTRINSIC MOTIVATION
TO LEARNTO LEARN
ACADEMIC MATERIALACADEMIC MATERIAL

11. We are motivated toWe are motivated to LEARNLEARN to get 4to get 4
PRIMARY BODY REWARDS:PRIMARY BODY REWARDS:
FoodFood
WaterWater
SexSex
Drugs of AbuseDrugs of Abuse

12. And we are motivated toAnd we are motivated to LEARNLEARN toto
get 5 Primary Social Rewardsget 5 Primary Social Rewards
Feel pleasant touchFeel pleasant touch((Rolls et al. 2003Rolls et al. 2003))
See attractive facesSee attractive faces ((Aharon et al. 2001Aharon et al. 2001))
Hearpositive wordsHearpositive words ((Hamann &Mao 2002Hamann &Mao 2002))
Interact with othersInteract with others ((Rilling et al. 2002Rilling et al. 2002))
Gain social statusGain social status ((Tooby &Cosmides, 2002Tooby &Cosmides, 2002))

13. Human motivation systemHuman motivation system
Rewarding experiencesRewarding experiences
triggeramygdala activitytriggeramygdala activity
triggerdopamine releasetriggerdopamine release
triggerfrontal lobetriggerfrontal lobe
activityactivity

14. AMYGDALAAMYGDALA
ComputesComputes
Emotional intensity ofEmotional intensity of
an experiencean experience
Degree of negative orDegree of negative or
positive emotionpositive emotion

15. Increased DopamineIncreased Dopamine ISIS the Rewardthe Reward

16. FRONTAL LOBEFRONTAL LOBE
Stores the reward valueStores the reward value
of experienceof experience
Activates behaviorsActivates behaviors
leading to the mostleading to the most
rewarded outcomerewarded outcome

17. All other complex experiences areAll other complex experiences are
conditioned with primary rewardsconditioned with primary rewards
$$USEOFMONEYUSEOFMONEY
WORKINGWORKING
LEARNINGLEARNING
FOLLOWING RULESFOLLOWING RULES

18. Motivation to LearnMotivation to Learn
School Subjects is ConditionedSchool Subjects is Conditioned
Most culturesMost cultures conditioncondition childrenchildren
with 3 primary rewards forsuccessfulwith 3 primary rewards forsuccessful
learning usinglearning using foodfood
educatoreducator && parent approvalparent approval
increased peersocial statusincreased peersocial status

19. Bad news finding # 2Bad news finding # 2
THEREISTHEREIS
NO EVIDENCENO EVIDENCE
FORFOR
LEARNING TRANSFERLEARNING TRANSFER

20. Reviews of research showReviews of research show nono
evidence for learning transferevidence for learning transfer
Barnett &Ceci (2002 )Barnett &Ceci (2002 )
Clement &LecoutreClement &Lecoutre
(2004)(2004)
Dixon &Dohn (2003)Dixon &Dohn (2003)
Mayer(2004)Mayer(2004)

21. No transfer means noNo transfer means no
free lunchfree lunch
NOSPECIFIC TRANSFERmeansNOSPECIFIC TRANSFERmeans
Learning toLearning to addadd DOES NOTmakeDOES NOTmake
learning tolearning to dividedivide easiereasier
NOGENERALTRANSFERmeansNOGENERALTRANSFERmeans
LearningLearning math DOES NOTmake youmath DOES NOTmake you
a betterlearner“in general”a betterlearner“in general”

22. Bad news finding # 3Bad news finding # 3
THEREIS
NO EVIDENCE
FOR
MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES

23. Gardner’s 11 TotalGardner’s 11 Total
IntelligencesIntelligences
Linguistic, Musical,Linguistic, Musical,
Logical-mathematical, Spatial,Logical-mathematical, Spatial,
Bodily-kinesthetic, Personal,Bodily-kinesthetic, Personal,
Naturalistic, Spiritual, Existential,Naturalistic, Spiritual, Existential,
Mental Searchlight, LaserMental Searchlight, Laser

24. Gardner’s NewestGardner’s Newest
IntelligencesIntelligences
ExistentialExistential = feeling at one with the= feeling at one with the
cosmoscosmos
Mental SearchlightMental Searchlight = people with high= people with high
IQ test scores scan widelyIQ test scores scan widely
LaserLaser = artists and artisans “who= artists and artisans “who
generate the advances (as well asgenerate the advances (as well as
the catastrophes) of society”the catastrophes) of society”

25. Gardner Admits No Supporting DataGardner Admits No Supporting Data
Exists for Multiple IntelligencesExists for Multiple Intelligences
Allix (2000) no evidenceAllix (2000) no evidence
Jie-Qi Chen (2004) no evidenceJie-Qi Chen (2004) no evidence
Gardner(2004) no evidenceGardner(2004) no evidence
Gardnerand Connell (2000, p. 292)Gardnerand Connell (2000, p. 292)
conceded that “there is little hardconceded that “there is little hard
evidence forMultiple Intelligencesevidence forMultiple Intelligences
theory” (2000, p. 292)theory” (2000, p. 292)

26. NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCHNEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH
REFUTES MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCESREFUTES MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
There is consistent significant evidence foraThere is consistent significant evidence fora
general intelligence factorG that appears togeneral intelligence factorG that appears to
be working memory —this stands againstbe working memory —this stands against
Multiple IntelligencesMultiple Intelligences
(Colom et al. 2004)(Colom et al. 2004)
There is consistent significant evidence thatThere is consistent significant evidence that
brain systems forcognitive functions arebrain systems forcognitive functions are
overlapping —this stands against Multipleoverlapping —this stands against Multiple
Intelligences (Lieberman, 2002)Intelligences (Lieberman, 2002)

27. NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCHNEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH
REFUTES MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES, cont.REFUTES MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES, cont.
There is evidence forspecific innate cognitionThere is evidence forspecific innate cognition
modules (Gallistel, 2003)modules (Gallistel, 2003)
1 Fast-mapping of word to object1 Fast-mapping of word to object
2 Person recognition of face, voice, clothes2 Person recognition of face, voice, clothes
3 Obligation computation of what we owe others3 Obligation computation of what we owe others
and what they owe usand what they owe us
4 Imitation of all aspects of the behaviorof4 Imitation of all aspects of the behaviorof
othersothers

28. ADAPTED COGNITION MODULES STAND AGAINSTADAPTED COGNITION MODULES STAND AGAINST
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCESMULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Each adapted cognition module is supported byEach adapted cognition module is supported by
evidence of its neural operations (MIevidence of its neural operations (MI
intelligences are not).intelligences are not).
A given adapted cognition module, like MirrorA given adapted cognition module, like Mirror
Neuron Tissue, operates using our vision,Neuron Tissue, operates using our vision,
hearing, speaking, gesturing, social awarenesshearing, speaking, gesturing, social awareness
—this combines parts of 4 of Gardner’s—this combines parts of 4 of Gardner’s
intelligences—thus negating their individualintelligences—thus negating their individual
existencesexistences

29. Bad news finding # 4Bad news finding # 4
EVERY SINGLEMEMORY WEEVERY SINGLEMEMORY WE
HAVEHAVE
ISIS
COMPLETELYCOMPLETELY
UNSTABLEUNSTABLE

30. Heraclitus was rightHeraclitus was right

31. You cannot step intoYou cannot step into
the same river twicethe same river twice
EVERY TIMEYOU REMEMBEREVERY TIMEYOU REMEMBER
SOMETHINGSOMETHING,, IT IS AIT IS A
DIFFERENTDIFFERENT
MEMORYMEMORY, BECAUSETHE, BECAUSETHE
ACTOFACTOFRECALL IS ARECALL IS A
RECONSTRUCTIONRECONSTRUCTION

32. RECALL TRANSFORMSRECALL TRANSFORMS
OUR MEMORIESOUR MEMORIES
When we RememberWhen we Remember
ourbrainourbrain
Takes the memory apart,Takes the memory apart,
Updates the memory,Updates the memory,
Brings the memory toBrings the memory to
consciousnessconsciousness
Then makes new proteinsThen makes new proteins
fora new structure forfora new structure for
the memory as it goesthe memory as it goes
back into long-termback into long-term
storage.storage.

33. Good news findings # 1, 2, 3, 4, 5Good news findings # 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Neuroscience researchNeuroscience research
has found 5 promoterhas found 5 promoter
mechanisms wherebymechanisms whereby
short term learningshort term learning
changes into long termchanges into long term
learninglearning

34. 5 major promoters of learning =5 major promoters of learning =
INNATELEARNING PROGRAMSINNATELEARNING PROGRAMS(Gallistel,(Gallistel,
2003)2003)
REPETITION of INFORMATIONREPETITION of INFORMATION
(Squire and Kandel, 2000)(Squire and Kandel, 2000)
EXCITEMENTEXCITEMENTat the time of learningat the time of learning
(Cahill &Gorski, 2003; LeDoux, 2002)(Cahill &Gorski, 2003; LeDoux, 2002)
EATING CARBOHYDRATESEATING CARBOHYDRATES at time ofat time of
learninglearning (Korol, 2002)(Korol, 2002)
8-9 HOURS OFSLEEP8-9 HOURS OFSLEEPafterlearningafterlearning
(Kuriyama, Stickgold, &Walker, 2004)(Kuriyama, Stickgold, &Walker, 2004)

35. The first promoters are innate learning programsThe first promoters are innate learning programs
called ADAPTED COGNITION MODULEScalled ADAPTED COGNITION MODULES
SPECIALIZEDBRAIN MODULES EVOLVEDTOSPECIALIZEDBRAIN MODULES EVOLVEDTO
COMPUTESPECIFIC INFORMATIONCOMPUTESPECIFIC INFORMATION
OUTSIDEOURCONSCIOUSNESS IN ORDEROUTSIDEOURCONSCIOUSNESS IN ORDER
TO MAKETHATPROCESS EASIERANDTO MAKETHATPROCESS EASIERAND
FASTERBECAUSETHOSECOMPUTATIONSFASTERBECAUSETHOSECOMPUTATIONS
HAVEBEEN IMPORTANTFOROURHAVEBEEN IMPORTANTFOROUR
SURVIVALSURVIVAL

36. INNATE PROGRAMS = Adapted CognitionINNATE PROGRAMS = Adapted Cognition
Modules are very specific computation systemsModules are very specific computation systems
Adapted cognition modules promote quick and easyAdapted cognition modules promote quick and easy
learning of certain types of information:learning of certain types of information:
●●We learn people’s faces, typical movements, voices,We learn people’s faces, typical movements, voices,
clothing, odors very easily because we have FACEclothing, odors very easily because we have FACE
RECOGNITION TISSUEin ourtemporal lobesRECOGNITION TISSUEin ourtemporal lobes
●● We learn speech and tool use motorskills moreWe learn speech and tool use motorskills more
easily because we have special MIRROReasily because we have special MIRROR
NEURONS in ourfrontal lobes that copy the speechNEURONS in ourfrontal lobes that copy the speech
and movements of othersand movements of others

37. ADAPTED COGNITION MODULESADAPTED COGNITION MODULES
ALSO INCLUDEALSO INCLUDE
COMPUTING FREQUENCIESCOMPUTING FREQUENCIES
BASIC COUNTING SKILLSBASIC COUNTING SKILLS
COMPUTING WHATOTHERS OWEUS ANDCOMPUTING WHATOTHERS OWEUS AND
WHATWEOWETHEMWHATWEOWETHEM
FASTMAPPING OFWORDLABELTO OBJECTSFASTMAPPING OFWORDLABELTO OBJECTS
ANDSITUATIONSANDSITUATIONS
COMPUTING SOCIALSTATUS ANDINSULTS TOCOMPUTING SOCIALSTATUS ANDINSULTS TO
SOCIALSTATUSSOCIALSTATUS

38. The 2The 2ndnd
Learning Promoter isLearning Promoter is
REPETITIONREPETITION
Squire &Kandel (2000)Squire &Kandel (2000)
Reviewed neurobiology of learningReviewed neurobiology of learning
Brain forms long term memoriesBrain forms long term memories
depending ondepending on
““the numberof times the event orthe numberof times the event or
fact is repeated”fact is repeated”

39. REPETITIONREPETITION
Squire &Kandel (2000)Squire &Kandel (2000)
Reviewed neurobiology ofReviewed neurobiology of
learninglearning
Brain forms long term memoriesBrain forms long term memories
depending ondepending on
““the numberof times thethe numberof times the
event orfact is repeated”event orfact is repeated”

40. Repetition causes neurons to makeRepetition causes neurons to make
MORE and LESS neurotransmitterMORE and LESS neurotransmitter

41. Repetition causes neurons to make MORE andRepetition causes neurons to make MORE and
FEWER CONNECTIONS with other neuronsFEWER CONNECTIONS with other neurons

42. ORIGIN OF TEACHINGORIGIN OF TEACHING
IS REPETITIONIS REPETITION
We all unconsciously repeat importantWe all unconsciously repeat important
information in conversationsinformation in conversations
All cultures teach important stories by verbalAll cultures teach important stories by verbal
repetitionrepetition
Chinese educators were taught to say everythingChinese educators were taught to say everything
TWICE…TWICE…
Most educators discover that repetition isMost educators discover that repetition is
valuablevaluable

43. The 3The 3rdrd
learning promoter islearning promoter is
EXCITEMENTEXCITEMENT
LeDoux has studied the brainLeDoux has studied the brain
for30 years &reportedfor30 years &reported
(2002) that “we(2002) that “we
rememberparticularlyrememberparticularly
well…those things thatwell…those things that
arouse ouremotions”arouse ouremotions”

44. Cahill & Gorski (2003)Cahill & Gorski (2003)
researchresearch

45. Excitement automatically increasesExcitement automatically increases
certain neurotransmitterscertain neurotransmitters

46. Excitement sets NEURON CONNECTIONS inExcitement sets NEURON CONNECTIONS in
the “ON” positionthe “ON” position

47. The 4The 4thth
learning promoter islearning promoter is
EATING CARBOHYDRATESEATING CARBOHYDRATES
Greenwood and Winocur (2001) research:Greenwood and Winocur (2001) research:
high-fat diet impairs brain glucose metabolismhigh-fat diet impairs brain glucose metabolism
needed to form long term memoryneeded to form long term memory
Korol (2002) research: eating carbohydratesKorol (2002) research: eating carbohydrates
enhanced memoryenhanced memory
(Smith, 2003) research: lack of breakfast(Smith, 2003) research: lack of breakfast
impairs learningimpairs learning

48. Eating carbohydrates gives the brain glucoseEating carbohydrates gives the brain glucose
to organize new synapse locationsto organize new synapse locations

49. Eating carbohydrates provides glucose to makeEating carbohydrates provides glucose to make
glycoproteins that bind neurons to one anotherglycoproteins that bind neurons to one another

50. EXTREME DIETINGEXTREME DIETING
IMPAIRS LEARNINGIMPAIRS LEARNING
A majority of young women ageA majority of young women age
12 to 30 yrs in the US are on fad12 to 30 yrs in the US are on fad
diets.diets.
During periods of dieting, theirDuring periods of dieting, their
learning will be significantlylearning will be significantly
slowed and it will be harderforslowed and it will be harderfor
them to retain informationthem to retain information..

51. The 5The 5thth
learning promoter is 8-9learning promoter is 8-9
HOURS OF SLEEPHOURS OF SLEEP
SPECIALISSUESPECIALISSUEof the journalof the journal
LearningandMemoryLearningandMemory
(2004 V11, N6) reports a(2004 V11, N6) reports a
wide range of evidence forwide range of evidence for
consolidation of learningconsolidation of learning
during sleepduring sleep

52. Macbeth (Macbeth (2.2.46-51)2.2.46-51)
Sleep that knits up the ravell’d sleave of care,Sleep that knits up the ravell’d sleave of care,
The death of each day’s life, sore labour’s bath,The death of each day’s life, sore labour’s bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great nature’s second course,Balm of hurt minds, great nature’s second course,
Chief nourisher in life’s feast.Chief nourisher in life’s feast.

53. SLEEP IS ASLEEP IS A
FREE LEARNING TOOLFREE LEARNING TOOL
DREAMING SLEEPpromotes differentialDREAMING SLEEPpromotes differential
strengthening of neurons in networksstrengthening of neurons in networks
holding learned informationholding learned information
NON-DREAMING SLEEPactivates calciumNON-DREAMING SLEEPactivates calcium
channels that biologically repeat the neuralchannels that biologically repeat the neural
path of learning to force long term storagepath of learning to force long term storage

54. DREAMING SLEEP causes differentialDREAMING SLEEP causes differential
strengthening by alteringstrengthening by altering
neurotransmittersneurotransmitters

55. NON-DREAMING sleep causes new neuronNON-DREAMING sleep causes new neuron
CONNECTIONS to be automatically repeatedCONNECTIONS to be automatically repeated

56. Research shows that TOO LITTLE SLEEP orResearch shows that TOO LITTLE SLEEP or
IMPAIRED SLEEP = IMPAIRED LEARNINGIMPAIRED SLEEP = IMPAIRED LEARNING
Alcohol ingested after a day of learning inhibitsAlcohol ingested after a day of learning inhibits
dreaming sleep and impairs memory storage ofdreaming sleep and impairs memory storage of
the day’s informationthe day’s information
Drugs of abuse used after learning have similarDrugs of abuse used after learning have similar
bad effects on sleep and the day’s learningbad effects on sleep and the day’s learning
A majority of teens, college students andA majority of teens, college students and
working adults in the US are sleep-deprivedworking adults in the US are sleep-deprived

57. Of the 5 major learning promotersOf the 5 major learning promoters
INNATELEARNING PROGRAMSINNATELEARNING PROGRAMS(Gallistel,(Gallistel,
2002)2002)
REPETITION of INFORMATIONREPETITION of INFORMATION
(Squire and Kandel, 2000)(Squire and Kandel, 2000)
EXCITEMENTEXCITEMENTat the time of learningat the time of learning
(Cahill &Gorski, 2003; LeDoux, 2002)(Cahill &Gorski, 2003; LeDoux, 2002)
EATING CARBOHYDRATESEATING CARBOHYDRATES at time ofat time of
learninglearning (Korol, 2002)(Korol, 2002)
8-9 HOURS OFSLEEP8-9 HOURS OFSLEEPafterlearningafterlearning
(Kuriyama, Stickgold, &Walker, 2004)(Kuriyama, Stickgold, &Walker, 2004)

58. TEACHERS CAN CONTROLTEACHERS CAN CONTROL
ONLY 2 PROMOTERSONLY 2 PROMOTERS
RepetitionRepetition
&&
ExcitementExcitement

59. TEACHERS CAN CONTROLTEACHERS CAN CONTROL
ONLY 2 PROMOTERSONLY 2 PROMOTERS
RepetitionRepetition
&&
ExcitementExcitement

60. BUT TEACHERS CAN ALSOBUT TEACHERS CAN ALSO
PERMIT AND ENCOURAGEPERMIT AND ENCOURAGE
HEALTHY CARBOHYDRATE SNACKINGHEALTHY CARBOHYDRATE SNACKING 
ANDAND
TALK TO STUDENTS AND PARENTS ABOUT THETALK TO STUDENTS AND PARENTS ABOUT THE
IMPORTANCE OF SLEEPIMPORTANCE OF SLEEP