Neuromonitoring techniques can monitor the brain's function, cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure, and brain oxygenation and metabolism. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical brain activity and is useful for detecting ischemia. Evoked potentials like somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) monitor sensory pathways from stimulus to cortex. Jugular venous oximetry and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) provide noninvasive monitoring of cerebral oxygenation. These techniques guide anesthesia management and detect intraoperative brain injury.
Neuromuscular monitoring, also known as train of four monitoring, is a technique used during recovery from the application of general anesthesia to objectively determine how well a patient's muscles are able to function. It involves the application of electrical stimulation to nerves and recording of muscle response using, for example, an acceleromyograph. Neuromuscular monitoring is typically used when neuromuscular-blocking drugs have been part of the general anesthesia and the doctor wishes to avoid postoperative residual curarization (PORC) in the patient, that is, the residual paralysis of muscles stemming from these drugs.
Intro to Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction Arun Shetty
Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, a seldom heard phenomenon but very effective physiologic property which helps lungs utilise ventilation to the maximum
Neuromuscular monitoring, also known as train of four monitoring, is a technique used during recovery from the application of general anesthesia to objectively determine how well a patient's muscles are able to function. It involves the application of electrical stimulation to nerves and recording of muscle response using, for example, an acceleromyograph. Neuromuscular monitoring is typically used when neuromuscular-blocking drugs have been part of the general anesthesia and the doctor wishes to avoid postoperative residual curarization (PORC) in the patient, that is, the residual paralysis of muscles stemming from these drugs.
Intro to Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction Arun Shetty
Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, a seldom heard phenomenon but very effective physiologic property which helps lungs utilise ventilation to the maximum
SUMMARY:
- Neurophysiologic monitoring not universally adopted but in many centers has become routine monitor for some surgical procedures
- Ideal neurophysiologic monitoring in the neurosurgical procedure should be: non-invasive (v.s invasive), high sensitivity & specificity, cost effective, easy to use, simple instrumentation, and real time or continous monitoring.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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2. Classification of monitoring techniques:
The brain can be monitored in terms of:
Function
Cerebral blood flow (CBF) & intracranial pressure
(ICP)
Brain oxygenation and metabolism
3. Monitoring of FUNCTION:
Electroencephalograms (EEG)
Raw EEG
Computerized Processed EEG: Compressed spectral array, Density spectral
array, Aperiodic analysis, Bispectral analysis (BIS)
Evoked Potential
Sensory EP:
Somatosensory EP
Visual EP
Brain stem auditory EP
Motor EP:
- Transcranial magnetic MEP
- Transcranial electric MEP
- Direct spinal cord stimulation
EMG
- Cranial nerve function (V, VII, IX, X, XI, XII)
5. EEG
Electroencephalogram – surface recordings of the
summation of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials generated by pyramidal cells in cerebral
cortex
EEG:
Measures electrical function of brain
Indirectly measures blood flow
Measures anesthetic effects
6. EEG
Three uses perioperatively:
Identify inadequate blood flow to cerebral cortex
caused by surgical/anesthetic-induced reduction in
flow
Guide reduction of cerebral metabolism prior to
induced reduction of blood flow
Predict neurologic outcome after brain insult
Other uses: identify consciousness,
unconsciousness, seizure activity, stages of sleep,
coma
7. EEG
Electrodes placed so that
mapping system relates
surface head anatomy to
underlying brain cortical
regions
3 parameters of the
signal:
Amplitude – size or
voltage of signal
Frequency – number of
times signal oscillates
Time – duration of the
sampling of the signal
8. EEG
EEG Waves :
Beta: high freq, low amp
(awake state)
Alpha: med freq, high amp
(eyes closed while awake)
Theta: Low freq (not
predominant)
Delta: very low freq high
amp (depressed
functions/deep coma
9. Abnormal EEG
Regional problems - asymmetry in frequency,
amplitude or unpredicted patterns of such
Epilepsy – high voltage spike with slow waves
Ischemia – slowing frequency with preservation of
amplitude or loss of amplitude (severe)
Global problems – affects entire brain, symmetric
abnormalities
Anesthetic agents induce global changes similar to global
ischemia or hypoxemia (control of anesthetic technique is
important
10. Anesthetic agents and EEG
Subanesthetic doses of inhaled anesthetics (0.3 MAC):
Increases frontal beta activity (low voltage, high frequency)
Light anesthesia (0.5 MAC):
Larger voltage, slower frequency
General anesthesia (1 MAC):
Irregular slow activity
Deeper anesthesia (1.25 MAC):
Alternating activity
Very deep anesthesia (1.6 MAC):
Burst suppression eventually isoelectric
11.
12. Non-anesthetic Factors Affecting EEG
Surgical
1. Cardiopulmonary bypass
2. Occlusion of major cerebral
vessel (carotid cross-clamping,
aneurysm clipping)
3. Retraction on cerebral cortex
4. Surgically induced emboli to
brain
Pathophysiologic
Factors
1. Hypoxemia
2. Hypotension
3. Hypothermia
4. Hypercarbia and hypocarbia
13. Uses of EEG
1. Carotid endarterectomy
2. Cerebral aneurysm surgery when temporary clipping is
used.
3. Cardiopulmonary bypass procedure
4. Extracranial-intracranial bypass procedure
5. Deliberate metabolic supression for cerebral protection.
Surgery that place the brain at risk (difficulties: restricted
access)
Seizure monitoring in ICU
14. Processed EEG
The gold standard for intra-op EEG monitoring:
continuous visual inspection of a 16- to 32-channel
analog EEG by experienced
electroencephalographer
“Processed EEG”: methods of converting raw
EEG to a plot showing voltage, frequency, and time
Monitors fewer channels, less experience required
Reasonable results obtained.
The common processing techniques used are time
domain analysis and frequency domain analysis.
15. Time domain analysis
EEG is split into small epochs
of a given duration, usually
about 1-4 sec.
The frequency and/or
amplitude information
contained in each epoch is
depicted graphically.
A change in the value of the
variables derived form this
display is expected to represent
a change in the raw EEG.
16. Frequency domain analysis
The EEG is split into small
epochs.
Each epoch is further resolved
into its component sine waves
and reconstructed as frequency
Vs power plot by using Fourier
Analysis.
Compressed Spectral Array
(CSA) and Density Modulated
Spectral Array (DSA)
20. Sensory Evoked Potential
Definition: electrical activity
generated in response to
sensory or motor stimulus
Stimulus given, then neural
response is recorded at
different points along
pathway
Sensory evoked potential
Latency – time from stimulus
to onset of SER
Amplitude – voltage of
recorded response
21. SEP
Sensory evoked potentials
Somatosensory (SSEP)
Auditory (BAEP)
Visual (VEP)
SSEP – produced by electrically stimulating a
cranial or peripheral nerve
If peripheral n. stimulated – can record proximally
along entire tract (peripheral n., spinal cord,
brainstem, thalamus, cerebral cortex)
As opposed to EEG, records subcortically
22. SSEP
Time-locked, event related,
pathway specific EEG in
respones of peripheral
stimulus
Monitor integrity of the
pathway from periphery to
the cortex
Electrical stimulator placed at
median, ulnar, or posterior tibial
nerves
23. Indications for SSEP
Indications:
Scoliosis correction
Spinal cord decompression and stabilization
after acute injury
Brachial plexus exploration
Resection of spinal cord tumor
Resection of intracranial lesions involving
sensory cortex
Clipping of intracranial aneurysms
Carotid endarterectomy
Thoracic aortic aneurysm repair
24. Carotid endarterectomy
Similar sensitivity has been found between SSEP and EEG
SSEP has advantage of monitoring subcortical ischemia
SSEP disadvantage do not monitor anterior portions -
frontal or temporal lobes
Cerebral Aneurysm
SSEP can gauge adequacy of blood flow to anterior
cerebral circulation
Evaluate effects of temporary clipping and identify
unintended occlusion of perforating vessels supplying
internal capsule in the aneurysm clip
25. Limitations
Motor tracts not directly monitored
Posterior spinal arteries supply dorsal columns
Anterior spinal arteries supply anterior (motor)
tracts
Possible to have significant motor deficit
postoperatively despite normal SSEPs
SSEP’s generally correlate well with spinal
column surgery
26. • Visual Evoked Potential (VEP)
Using LED goggles to create stimulus
Difficult to perform
• Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potential (BAEP)
Repetitive clicks delivered to the ear
Reflects the VIII nerve & brainstem “well-being”
33. Motor Evoked Potentials
Motor EP:
- Transcranial magnetic MEP
- Transcranial electric MEP
- Direct spinal cord stimulation
34. Motor Evoked Potentials
Transcranial electrical
MEP monitoring
Stimulating electrodes
placed on scalp
overlying motor cortex
Application of electrical
current produces MEP
Stimulus propagated
through descending
motor pathways
35. Motor Evoked Potentials
MEPs very sensitive to
anesthetic agents
Possibly due to
anesthetic depression of
anterior horn cells in
spinal cord
Intravenous agents
produce significantly
less depression
TIVA often used
No muscle relaxant
36. EMG
Early detection of surgically
induced nerve damage and
assessment of level of nerve
function intra-operatively.
Active or passive.
Uses:
1. Facial nerve monitoring
2. Trigeminal nerve monitoring
3. Spinal Accessory nerve
39. Intra-cranial Pressure
The pressure inside the lateral ventricles/lumbar
subarachnoid space in supine position.
The normal value of ICP is 10-15 mm Hg in adults.
40. Indications for ICP monitoring
1. Head Injury
2. Brain Tumors
3. Subarachnoid Heamorrhage
4. Hydrocephalus
5. Neuromedical conditions
42. ICP waveforms
ICP shows a pulsatile recording with slow
respiratory component superimposed on a biphasic
recording synchronous with cardiac cycle.
Normally, respiratory oscillations are greater than
the cardiac oscillations, but when ICP increases,
arterial pulsations also assume greater amplitude
43. Abnormalities of ICP waveforms
A WAVES: plateau waves
indicate ICP above 40mmHg
and are sustained for 5-
20min.
B WAVES: Amplitude of
20mmHg and occur at the
rate of 1-2/min. Occur
synchronus with cheyne-
stokes breathing
C WAVES: no pathological
significance
44. Transcranial Doppler
Measures the blood flow velocity in major cerebral
blood vessles.
Examination carried out through the temporal
window, orbital foramen or foramen magnum.
Using 2MHz probe.
MCA commonly used.
Change in velocity is proportional to change in flow
considering the vessel diameter is constant.
46. Clinical applications ofTCD
1. It is useful as a noninvasive monitor of CBF.
2. It is helpful to diagnose cerebral vasospasm and monitor response to
therapy in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage and head injury.
3. It is used to study autoregulation of CBF and cerebral vascular
response to carbon dioxide.
4. It can be used to assess intracranial circulatory status in raised ICP.
5. It can be a useful tool to identify intraoperative cerebral
embolisation during surgery on carotid artery and cardiopulmonary
bypass procedures.
6. It can be used to optimise CPP and hyperventilationin patients with
head injury.
47. Intravascular tracer compounds
Method originally described by Kety and Schmidt.
Administration of radioactive isotope of xenon-133
Measurement of radioactivity washout with gamma
detectors.
Disadvantages: 1.Exposure to radioactivity
2.Cumbersome detector equipment
3.Focal areas of hypoperfusion missed
4.Snapshot of CBF not continuous monitor.
48. Thermal diffusion cerebral blood flow
monitoring
The rate at which heat dissipates in a
tissue depends on the tissue’s thermal
conductive properties and the blood
flow in that area.
Measurement is automatically
suspended if the passive thermistor
measures a brain temperature of 39.1°
C.
The inability to monitor during a febrile
episode may constitute a true limitation
of the technique
50. Monitoring of cerebral oxygenation and
metabloism
Brain tissue oxygenation
Jugular bulb venous oximetry monitoring
Microdialysis catheter
Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
51. Jugular venous oximetry :principle
(A-V)DO2 x CBF = CMRO2
When CMRO2 is constant, any change in CBF is
associated with a reciprocal change in the cerebral
arteriovenous oxygen difference.
Based on the principle of reflectance oximetry.
52. Jugular venous oximetry
Continuous monitoring of
jugular venous oxygen
saturation (SjVO2 ) is carried
out by a catheter placed
retrograde through the
internal jugular vein intothe
jugular bulb.
For accurate measurement,
the tip of the catheter must
be within 1 cm of the jugular
bulb.
53. Indices obtained from SjVO2
1. Jugular venous oxygen
saturation (SjVO2 )
2. Cerebral arteriovenous
oxygen difference (A-VDO2 )
(the difference between
arterial and jugularvenous
oxygen content) and
3. Cerebral oxygen
extraction(CEO2 ) (the
difference between SaO2
and SjVO2 ).
54. Interpretation of SjVO2
Interpretation of jugular venous oxygen saturation (SjvO2)
Increased values: >90% indicates absolute/relative
hyperemia
Reduced metabolic need comatose/brain death
Excessive flove sever hypercapnia
AVM
Normal Values: 60-70% focal ischemia?
Decreased Values: <50% increased O2 extraction,
indicates a potential risk of ischemia injury
Increased demand: seizure / fever
Decreased supply: decreased flow, decreased hematocrit
As ischemiaprogress to infarction: O2 consumption
decreases
55. Near Infra-red Spectroscopy NIRS
The principle of absorption of near-infrared light by
chromophores in the body like
oxyhaemoglobin,deoxyhaemoglobin and
cytochrome aa3.
Light in the near-infrared region (70-1000 nm) is
very minimally absorbed by body tissues. It can
penetrate tissues upto 8 cm.
Measure regional cerebral blood flow, cerebral
blood volume, cerebral oxygen saturation and
cerebral metabolism.
56. NIRS limitations
Inability to assess the contribution of extracranial tissue
to the signal changes.
Presence of intracranial blood in the form of
haematomas and contusions can interfere with the
measurements.
Measures small portion of frontal cortex, contributions from
non-brain sources
Temperature changes affect NIR absorption water spectrum
Degree of contamination of the signal by chromophores in
the skin can be appreciable and are variable
Not validated – threshold for regional oxygen saturation not
known (20% reduction from baseline?)
57. Tissue partial pressure oxygen
monitoring:
Based on an oxygen-sensitive electrode originally described by
Clark.
The diffusion of oxygen molecules through an oxygen-
permeable membrane into an electrolyte solution causes an
electric current that is proportional to Po2.
The catheter is placed into the brain tissue through a twist
drill hole into the subcortical white matter.
Normal values for brain tissue oxygen tension are 20-40
mmHg.
In patients with cerebral ischaemia the values are 10 ± 5
mmHg as against 37 ± 12 mmHg in normal individuals
58. Cerebral Microdialysis
Small catheter inserted with ICP/tissue PO2
monitor
Artificial cerebrospinal fluid,equilibrates with
extracellular fluid,chemical composition analysis
Markers:
○ Lactate/pyruvate ratio : onset of ischemia
○ High level glycerol: inadequate energy to maintain
cellular integrity- membrane breakdown
○ Glutamate: neuronal injury and a factor in its
exacerbation
59. Catheter placement is
usually in ‘high risk’ tissue.
Uses: 1.Ischemia/trauma
2.epilepsy
3.Tumor chemistry
60.
61. References
Millers anesthesia 8th edition
Neurological monitoring. Dr. G S Rao IJA 2002;46(4)
Advances in neuroanesthesia monitoring Dr.
Pramod Bithal AIIMS new delhi. 2006 ISACON
GE-Datex Ohmeda Entropy monitor manual
Coviden BIS monitor users manual
Some agents totally suppress EEG activity (e.g. isoflurane)
Some agents never produce burst suppression or an isoelectric EEG
Incapable (e.g. benzodiazipines)
Toxicity (e.g. halothane) prevents giving large enough dose
Barbiturates, propofol, etomidate:
Initial activation, then dose-related depression, results in EEG silence
Thiopental – increasing doses will reduce oxygen requirements from neuronal activity
Basal requirements (metabolic activity) reduced by hypothermia
Epileptiform activity with methohexital and etomidate in subhypnotic doses
Ketamine:
Activates EEG at low doses (1mg/kg), slowing at higher doses
Cannot achieve electrocortical silence
Also associated with epileptiform activity in patients with epilepsy
Benzodiazepines:
Produce typical EEG pattern
No burst suppression or isoelectric EEG
Opioids
Slowing of EEG
No burst suppression
High dose – epileptiform activity
Normeperidine
Nitrous oxide
Minor changes, decrease in amplitude and frontal high-frequency activity
No burst suppression
Isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane:
EEG activation at low concentrations; slowing, eventually electrical silence at higher concentrations
Isoflurane
Periods of suppression at 1.5 MAC
Electrical silence at 2 – 2.5 MAC
Enflurane
Seizure activity with hyperventilation and high concentrations (>1.5 MAC)
Halothane
3-4 MAC necessary for burst suppression
Cardiovascular collapse
EEG is a gold-standard for monitoring cerebral ischaemia. A 16-channel EEG has been shown to be as sensitive as direct CBF measurement intraoperatively during carotid endarterectomy.
Intraoperative EEG monitoring could be helpful to identify cerebral ischaemia during procedures associated with temporary vessel occlusion and during cardioplumonary bypass procedures
In the intensive care unit, EEG monitoring may be helpful to monitor seizure activity in patients with status epilepticus under the effect of muscle relaxants.Subclinical seizures causing neurological deterioration may also be diagnosed by EEG.
EEG has also been used to prognosticate the outcome of coma. It is also an ancillary tool for confirmation of brain death.
Various mathematical measures derived from EEG have been investigated for their potential to quantify the depth of anaesthesia.
These include median frequency, spectral edge frequency, bispectral index and approximate entropy.
square of amplitude)
BIS combines
information from three EEG analyses: the spectrogram,
the bispectrum, and a time domain assessment of burst
suppression.20-22 The spectrogram is a decomposition of
the EEG into its power content by frequency as a function
of time.20 The bispectrum measures as a function
of time the degree of nonlinear coupling between pairs
of frequencies in the spectrogram.20 The BIS algorithm
works by measuring specific features of the spectrogram,
the bispectrum, and the level of burst suppression
and uses a predetermined weighting scheme to convert
The EEG also undergoes
various artifact corrections. Along with the index
value, the unprocessed EEG, the spectrogram and the
level of electromyographic activity are displayed on the
monitor. The production of the index is computationally
intensive, so that there is a 20- to 30-second lag
between the time the EEG is observed and the computation
of the corresponding BIS value
Three exceptions are
the anesthetics ketamine (Fig. 50-6), nitrous oxide, and
dexmedetomidine (Fig. 50-7). The dissociative anesthetic
state produced by ketamine is associated with prominent
high-frequency oscillations rather than slow wave
oscillations. As a consequence, patients can be unconscious
with ketamine but have unexpectedly high index
values.25 Nitrous oxide increases the amplitude of highfrequency
EEG activity26 and decreases the amplitude of
low-frequency EEG activity,27 yet it has little to no effect
on the BIS index.21,28 In the case of dexmedetomidine,
slow oscillations are prominent during sedation,29-31
(see Fig. 50-7) with BIS values that are typically in the
unconscious range. However, the patient can be readily
aroused by verbal commands or light shaking because
dexmedetomidine does not produce profound unconsciousness.
Short latency intermediate latency and long latency
ICP monitoring is appropriate in patients with severe
head injury (GCS 3-8 after cardiopulmonary
resuscitation) with an abnormal admission CT scan.
An abnormal CT scan of the head is one that reveals
haematomas, contusions, oedema, or compressed
basal cisterns.
ICP monitoring is appropriate in patients with severe
head injury with a normal CT scan if two or more
of the following features are noted at admission:
age over 40 years, unilateral or bilateral motor
posturing, systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg.
3. ICP monitoring is not routinely indicated in patients
with mild or moderate head injury. However, a
physician may choose to monitor ICP in certain
conscious patients with traumatic mass lesions such
as haematomas and contusions.
The credit for systematic monitoring of ICP goes
to Lundberg who performed CSF pressure measurements
in 1960s
Initially, ICP returns
to baseline level between two successive plateau waves,
but progressively the baseline ICP also tends to increase.
Occurrence of plateau waves is associated with clinical
deterioration of the patient. The patient may complain of
headache, loss of consciousness, or exhibit abnormal motor
responses, breathing patterns and pupillary signs during
these episodes.
A progressive increase in ICP and decrease in CPP
are associated with characteristic changes in the
morphology of flow velocity waveform (Fig 4). As the
ICP increases, diastolic velocity decreases and the
pulsatality increases. When the ICP is higher than the
diastolic blood pressure but lower than the systolic blood
pressure, a biphasic wave pattern results, followed later,
by a total disappearance of the wave form when intracranial
circulatory arrest occurs.6 A good correlation exists
between PI and ICP in head trauma
Double indicator dilution technique: using argon. Cold indocyanine green injected into central vein resulting thermo-dye dilution curves were recorded simultaneously in aorta and jugular bulb using combined fiberoptic thermistor catheter.
LIMITATION: The major limitation of SjVO2 monitoring is that
it provides only a global estimate of the adequacy of CBF
and focal ischaemic events may not be detected by this
technique. A recent study showed a good correlation
between SjVO2 and direct brain tissue oxygen tension
only in the normal areas of brain and not in areas with
focal injury.10
Glutamate is implicated in the pathogenesis of epileptic seizures