Module 1 kqb ktu qbank

EST 200 DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
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Purpose of this course
i) introduce the undergraduate engineering students the fundamental principles of
design engineering,
ii) make them understand the steps involved in the design process and
iii) familiarize them with the basic tools used and approaches in design.
Students are expected to apply design thinking in learning as well as while
practicing engineering, which is very important and relevant for today. Case studies
from various practical situations will help the students realize that design is not
only concerned about the function but also many other factors like customer
requirements, economics, reliability, etc. along with a variety of life cycle issues.
The course will help students to consider aesthetics, ergonomics and sustainability
factors in designs and also to practice professional ethics while designing.

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Assessment Pattern
Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) Pattern:
Attendance : 10 marks
Continuous Assessment Test (2 numbers) : 25 marks
Assignment/Quiz/Course project : 15 marks
End Semester Examination (ESE) Pattern: There will be two parts; Part A and Part B.
Part A : 30 marks
part B : 70 marks
Part A contains 10 questions with 2 questions from each module, having 3 marks for each question.
Students should answer all questions.
Part B contains 2 case study questions from each module of which student should answer any one.
Each question carry 14 marks and can have maximum 2 sub questions.

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Mark distribution

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Module 1
Design Process:- Introduction to Design and Engineering Design, Defining a
Design Process-:Detailing Customer Requirements, Setting Design Objectives,
Identifying Constraints, Establishing Functions, Generating Design Alternatives
and Choosing a Design.

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Introduction to Design and Engineering
Design
Given the long history of people designing things
it is useful
●
to set some context for engineering
design
●
and to start developing a vocabulary of
engineering design
●
and a shared understanding of what we mean
by engineering design.

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Where and When Do Engineers Design?
What does it mean for an engineer to design something?
When do engineers design things?
Where? Why? For whom?

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An engineer working for a large company that processes and
distributes various food products could be asked to design a
container for a new juice product.

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Engineer could work for a design-and-construction company,
designing part of a highway bridge embedded in a larger
transportation project.

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Engineer could work for an automobile company that is
developing new instrumentation clusters for its cars.

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There are common features that make it possible to identify a
design process and the context in which it occurs. In each of
these cases, three “roles” are played as the design unfolds,
●
Client
●
User
●
Designer

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Client: a person or group or company that wants a design conceived.
User: someone who will employ or operate whatever is being
designed.
Designer: someone whose job is to solve the client’s problem in a way
that meets the user’s needs.

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The client could be internal (e.g., a person at the food company in
charge of the new juice product) or external (e.g., the government
agency that contracts for the new highway system). While a designer
may relate differently to internal and external clients, it is typically
the client who motivates and presents the starting point for design.
That is why a designer’s first task is to question the client to clarify
what the client really wants and translate it into a form that is useful
to her as an engineer.

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The user is a key player in the design effort. In the contexts
mentioned above, the users are, respectively, consumers who buy and
drink a new juice drink, and drivers on a new interstate highway.
Users have a stake in the design process because designs have to
meet their needs. Thus, the designer, the client, and the user form a
triangle.

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The designer has to understand what both the client and users want
and need. Often the client speaks to the designer on behalf of the
intended users, although anyone who has sat in a cramped seat on a
commercial flight would have to ask both airlines and airplane
manufacturers who they think their users are!

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The public also has a stake in many designs, for example, a new
interstate highway. Both designer and client have to understand what
the users want and what the public demands in a design. Designers
have obligations not only to clients and users, but also to their
profession and to the public at large.

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Engineering designers work in many different kinds of environments:
small and large companies, start-up ventures, government, not-for-
profit organizations, and engineering services firms. Designers will
see differences in the size of a project, the number of colleagues on
the design team, and their access to relevant information about what
users want.

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On large projects, many designers will be working on details of a
project which will be confined. The designers of a bridge abutment, an
airplane fuel tank, or components of a computer motherboard are not
likely to be as concerned with the larger picture of what clients and
users want from the entire project because the system-level design
context has already been established.

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Large, complex projects often lead to very different interpretations of
client project statements and of user needs.

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Basic Vocabulary for Engineering Design
Engineering design is a systematic, intelligent process in which
engineers generate, evaluate, and specify solutions for devices,
systems, or processes whose form(s) and function(s) achieve clients’
objectives and users’ needs while satisfying a specified set of
constraints. In other words, engineering design is a thoughtful
process for generating plans or schemes for devices, systems, or
processes that attain given objectives while adhering to specified
constraints.

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Terms related to design commonly used by designers and engineers
design objective: a feature or behavior that we wish the design to
have or exhibit.
design constraint: a limit or restriction on the features or behaviors
of the design. A proposed design is unacceptable if these limits are
violated.
Objective vs constraint: Objectives may be completely or partially achieved, or
may not be achieved at all. Constraints, on the other hand, must be satisfied
or the design is not acceptable.

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Terms related to design commonly used by designers and engineers
functions: things a designed device or system is supposed to do.
Engineering functions almost always involve transforming or
transferring energy, information, or material.
means: a way or a method to make a function happen. For example,
friction is a means of fulfilling a function of applying a braking force.
form: the shape and structure of something as distinguished from its
material.

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Form and function are two related yet independent entities. In
particular, while we can often infer the purpose of a device from its
form or structure, we can’t do the reverse, that is, we cannot
automatically deduce what form a device must have from the function
alone.
To take a simple example, we can’t look at the shape of a smartphone
and know what it was supposed to do. Moreover, if we were asked to
design a smartphone, is there any obvious link or inference that we
can use to choose its form or shape?

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Our definition of engineering design states that designs emerge from
a systematic, intelligent process . This is not to deny that design is a
creative process. There are, however, techniques and tools we can use
to support our creativity, to help us think more clearly, and to make
better decisions along the way. These tools and techniques are not
formulas or algorithms. Rather, they are ways of asking questions and
of presenting and reviewing the answers to those questions as the
design process unfolds.

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Measuring the Success of an Engineered Design - Terms commonly
used by designers and engineers
metric: a standard of measurement; in the context of engineering
design, a scale on which the achievement of a design’s objectives can
be measured and assessed.
specification(s): a scale on which the achievement of a design’s
functions can be measured. Specifications are engineering statements
of the extent to which functions are performed by a design.

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Design and systems – item designed needs to interface with other
devices and work in an environment. Systems concept needs to be
embraced in design. Future designs will call for more complex
systems.

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Communication plays a vital role in the design process. From the
original communication of a design problem, through the final
fabrication specifications, the device or system being designed must
be described and “talked about” in many, many ways.
The designer must properly communicate the intended design with
fabricator of the design. (designer must also enquire with fabricator
about what design can be fabricated.)
Read. Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City walkway collapse

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How to learn and do Engineering Design
Design problems are ill structured (no structured / formulaic solution)
and open ended (many acceptable solutions possible). Engineering
design is not easy.
Teaching how to do engineering design is not easy. It is learned by
doing. Designers, like dancers and athletes, use drills and exercises
to perfect their skills, rely on coaches to help them improve both the
mechanical and interpretive aspects of their work, and pay close
attention to other skilled practitioners of their art.

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Defining a design process
Design process - how we actually do a design. We will break down a
complex process into smaller, more detailed design tasks:
1. Detailing Customer Requirements
2.Setting Design Objectives, Identifying Constraints, Establishing
Functions.
3. Generating Design Alternatives and Choosing a Design.

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Functions.

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As we define those design tasks, we will identify specific design tools
and methods that we use to implement a design process. The design
process we are seeing is not a receipe for doing design but rather a
framework we can use as we design something.
The overall focus will be on what we will identify as conceptual design,
the early stage where different design ideas or concepts are
developed and analyzed.

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1. Detailing consumer requirements
Problem definition: We frame the problem by delineating the
customer requirements, which means clarifying the client’s objectives,
identifying constraints, and establishing functions before we begin
conceptual design.
During problem definition we frame the problem by clarifying
objectives, identifying constraints, establishing functions, and
gathering the other information needed to develop an unambiguous
statement of a client’s wishes, needs, and limits, that is, the customer
requirements .

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1. Detailing consumer requirements
Input: original problem statement
Tasks: revise client’s problem statement
clarify objectives
identify constraints
establish principal functions
Outputs: customer requirements:
revised problem statement
initial list of final objectives
initial list of constraints
initial list of principal functions

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Detailing consumer requirements
Most design projects begin when a client sets out a problem to be
solved, typically in a verbal problem statement that identifies a
gadget that will appeal to certain markets (e.g., a container for a new
drink), a widget that will perform some specific functions (e.g., a
chicken coop), or a problem to be fixed through a new design (e.g., a
new transportation network and hub).

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The initial problem statement may be short. It is task of designer to
ask more questions to gain clarity of the intended design. We must
carefully examine initial problem statements in order to identify and
deal with errors, biases, and implied solutions. Only then can we
begin to understand and solve the real problem.

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A design team may ask questions of the clients and stakeholders who
might have varying degrees of interest in the design, including
potential users or experts in the field. The experts may be versed in
relevant technology or knowledgeable about the market for which the
design is aimed.

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Design teams may also hold their own internal discussions in which
they ask each other questions to elicit and list ideas that they can
then organize into some problem relevant structure.
The best outcome of this work is a list of attributes from which
separate lists of objectives (i.e., features or behaviors), constraints
(i.e., limits), and functions (i.e., things the design must do) can be
extracted.

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As we gather information from clients, users, and others, our own
views of the problem will shift. In addition to the initial clarification
exercise, we will be gathering information that we can present as
objectives, constraints, and functions. It is important to recognize the
impact of all the new information we’ve gathered and developed. We
can formalize our new (and possibly evolving) understanding by
drafting a revised problem statement that reflects our fuller
understanding of the design problem.

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Functions.

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Setting Design Objectives, Identifying Constraints, Establishing
Functions.
Imagine that we are on a design team that is consulting for a
company that makes both low and high-quality tools (with a
corresponding range of prices). That company’s management has
given the team a problem statement, “Design a new ladder for
electricians or other maintenance and construction professionals
working on conventional job sites.”

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Functions.
To fully understand the goals for this design, we have to talk with
management, potential users, the company’s marketing people, and
experts. Building on our previously discussed idea of design as
questioning, we ask:
●
What features or behaviors would you like the ladder to have?
●
What do you want this ladder to do?
●
Are there already ladders on the market that have similar features?

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Functions.
And while asking these three questions, we might also ask:
●
What do you mean by that?
●
How are you going to do that?
●
Why do you want that?
●
Are there things or circumstances you want us to avoid?

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Functions.

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Functions.
objective: a feature or behavior that the design should have or
exhibit.
Objectives are normally expressed as adjectives that capture what the
design should be, as opposed to what the design should do. For
example, saying that a ladder should be portable or lightweight
expresses an attribute that the client wants the ladder to have. These
features and behaviors, expressed in the natural languages of the
client and of potential users, make the object “look good” in the eyes
of the client or user.

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Functions.
constraint: a limit or restriction on the design’s behaviors or
attributes.
Constraints are clearly defined limits whose satisfaction can be
framed into a binary choice (e.g., a ladder material is a conductor or it
is not). Any designs that violate these limits are unacceptable. For
example, when we say a ladder must meet OSHA standards, we are
stating a constraint.

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Functions.
function: a specific thing a designed device or system is expected to
do.
Functions are typically expressed as “doing” terms in a verb–noun
pairing. Often they refer to engineering functions, such as the second
function in Table 3.1: “Must not conduct electricity.” Note that this
function is also a constraint.

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Functions.
means: a way or method to make a function happen.
Means or implementations are often expressed in very specific terms
that, by their nature, are solution-specific. Means often come up
because clients or others think of examples of things they’ve seen
that they think are relevant.

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Functions.
Clarifying a client’s objectives
From the list of attributes in Table 3.1, pruned to get =>

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Functions.
We see that our list still has a lot of entries. We might find the list more
useful if we could organize it in some way. For example, the several uses
that we have identified for the ladder might be grouped or clustered
together in some coherent way.
Another way to group list entries might be to ask why we care about them.
For example, why do we want our ladder to be used outdoors? Maybe
that’s part of what makes a ladder useful, which relates to another entry
on our list.

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Functions.
Similarly, we could ask why we care whether the ladder is useful. In
this case, the answer is not on the list: We want it to be useful so that
people will buy it.
Put another way, usefulness makes a ladder marketable. This
suggests that we need an entry on marketing for our pruned
objectives list: “The ladder should be marketable.” This turns out to
be a very helpful objective, since it tells us why we want the ladder to
be cheap, portable, etc.

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Functions.
With a thoughtful clustering of our questions in this way, we can
develop a new list that we can represent in an indented outline, with
hierarchies of major headings and various levels of subheadings

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Functions.
Clarifying a client’s objectives: Objective tree
The indented outline of objectives in Table 4.2 is one way to
represent the information contained in that list. That same
information can also be represented or portrayed graphically in a
hierarchy of boxes, each of which contains an objective for the object
being designed, as shown in Figure 4.1. Each layer or row of objective
boxes corresponds to a level of indentation (indicated by the number
of digits to the right of the first decimal point) in the outline. Thus,
the indented outline becomes an objectives tree : a graphical
depiction of the objectives for the device or system.

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Functions.

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Functions.

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Functions.
The top-level goal in an objectives tree—the root node at the top of
the tree—is decomposed or broken down into subobjectives at
differing levels of importance or to include progressively more detail.
Thus, the tree reflects a hierarchical structure as it expands
downward. An objectives tree also gives the tree some organizational
strength and utility by clustering together related subobjectives or
similar ideas.

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Functions.
Clarifying a client’s objectives: Observations on objective tree
●
As we work down the objective tree we are getting more detail. Also
we are answering the question of “How are you going to do that?”.
●
Conversely as we move up the tree we are answering the why question
of a specific objective: “Why do you want that?”.
●
When do we stop downward construction of tree? - when we run of
objectives and implementations begin to appear.
●
Functions and means are not added in objective tree. Constraints may
be added.
●
Objective tree building is an iterative process.

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Functions.
Identifying the constraints
There are limits to everything, of course, but as a practical matter we
often use constraints as a kind of “checklist” to help us keep our list
of possible designs to a reasonable length. Such constraints are
typically expressed in terms of specific numerical values, but not
always, as we can see from the safe ladder constraint list in Table 5.1.
By way of contrast, objectives are much more likely to be expressed
as verbal statements, for example, a ladder should be cheap.

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Functions.

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Functions.
Constraints limit the size of the design space (i.e., the number of
potential designs we might consider), while objectives permit us to
explore what remains in that design space. Constraints enable us to
reject unacceptable alternatives, while objectives enable us to select
among design alternatives that are at least acceptable.

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Functions.
An engineer working for a large company that processes and
distributes various food products could be asked to design a
container for a new juice product.

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Functions.

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Functions.
Constraints limit the size of the design space (i.e., the number of
potential designs we might consider), while objectives permit us to
explore what remains in that design space. Constraints enable us to
reject unacceptable alternatives, while objectives enable us to select
among design alternatives that are at least acceptable.

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Functions.
Establishing functions:
After we finish defining the client’s design problem we move
into engineering practice by
(1)establishing the functions that the design must perform,
and
(2)writing specifications that express those functions in
quantitative, engineering terms that enable us to ensure that
those functions are performed.

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Functions.
function n: those things a designed device or system is supposed to
do.
Q) what does a bookcase do?
Engineers answer=> It resists the force of gravity exactly to support
the weight of the books, and it enables the organization of those
books with dividers or by its shelf lengths.

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Functions.
function n: those things a designed device or system is
supposed to do.
The statement of a function typically couples an action verb to
a noun or object: lift a book, support a shelf, transmit a
current, measure a temperature, or switch on a light.

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Functions.
function n: those things a designed device or system is
supposed to do.
The statement of a function typically couples an action verb to
a noun or object: lift a book, support a shelf, transmit a
current, measure a temperature, or switch on a light.

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Functions.
Establishing functions: Tools for establishing function
1. Black box or Glass box can be used to perform functional
analysis.
Design can be considered as a transformer of inputs to
outputs.

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Functions.
Black Box

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Functions.
Glass Box

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Functions.

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Functions.
2. Reverse engineering or dissection: existing designs can be
studied.
3. Enumeration: list out the functions that our design needs to
do.

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Functions.
2. Reverse engineering or dissection: existing designs can be
studied.
3. Enumeration: list out the functions that our design needs to
do.

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Functions.
Specification:
Functional requirements don’t mean much if we don’t consider
how well a design must perform its functions.
Specifications are used to measure whether the design
achieved the required function.

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Generating Design Alternatives and Choosing a Design.
Having defined a design problem by clarifying objectives,
identifying constraints, and establishing functions, we now
initiate its conceptual design by generating or creating design
concepts.
How do we generate or create actual designs? We start by
building a design space, an imaginary intellectual region of
design alternatives that contains all of the potential solutions
to our design problem. But hard to identify design space for
unfamiliar devices.

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Morphological chart method for defining design alternatives.

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A morphological chart (aka a morph chart ) is a matrix in
which the leftmost column is a list of all of the principal
functions that our design must perform and also some of the
key features it must have. The list should be of a manageable
size, and all of the entries should be at the same level of detail
to help ensure consistency. Across from each of the functions
or features, we list each of the different means of realizing the
function or feature that we can think of.

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We start building conceptual designs from the morph chart by
noting that any feasible design must be functionally complete :
every function, listed in the leftmost column must be achieved
by that design. So we assemble designs by choosing one
means from each row, and combine them into a functional
design concept or scheme.

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How big is the design space?
From combinatorics, combining a single means in a given row
with each of the remaining means in all of the other rows. Thus,
for the beverage container morph chart of Figure 7.1, the
number of design alternatives could be as large as 4 x 5 x 6 x 2
x 3 = 720. But not all are feasible designs. Hence morph chart
helps to build design space and create design alternatives, and
it also helps to prune the design space by identifying infeasible
designs (based on physcial principles and common sense).

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How to think of the means?
Metaphors => help to think of analogies. (eg. Velcro – plant
burrs)
Fantasy analogies – thinking out of box (20,000 leagues under
the sea, 1871, submarines)
Similar solutions – arterial stent similar to scaffolding

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Choosing a design
How do we choose the winner from among the many
alternatives that may be generated by techniques like morph
chart?
Choose the design that best meets the clients objectives. Can
use metrics to measure achievement of objectives.
Use the combined insight gained from the metrics of the
different objectives to choose a design.

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Choosing a design
The following can be used to ease this process.
1. limit to most important objectives – to avoid drowning useful
information in a sea of relatively unimportant data.
2. establish metrics with common sense of scale (not to
overemphasise or underemphasise some results)
3. fair analysis of the metrics of different objectives

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Choosing a design: Numerical Evaluation Matrix

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Choosing a design: Numerical Evaluation Matrix
Points to remember:
1. Limit number of decisive objectives to top two or three.
2. Don’t sum the data in the columns, score in one metric not
translatable into another.
3. See if pareto optimal design (clearly superior is one or
dimensions and at least equal in all others) – no such design in
above example.

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