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Neutrophils and macrophages are immune cells that defend against infection through processes like diapedesis, ameboid motion, chemotaxis, and phagocytosis. The monocyte-macrophage system, also called the reticuloendothelial system, is a generalized phagocytic system with macrophages located especially in exposed areas like the skin, lymph nodes, lungs, liver, spleen, and bone marrow under different names depending on their tissue location.
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The document summarizes the architecture of the immune system. It describes the mononuclear-phagocytic system (MPS), also known as the monocyte macrophage system or reticuloendothelial system, as the second line of defense that is phylogenetically primitive but effective in host protection even without B and T lymphocytes. It also describes the lymphoid component, which includes primary organs like the thymus and peripheral organs like lymph nodes and spleen. The MPS originates from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow and differentiates into monocytes and tissue-based macrophages that carry out phagocytosis and antigen presentation.
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Monocytes exit the blood to become macrophages. They make up 2-6% of white blood cells and are phagocytic, defending against viruses and bacteria. Monocytes live for 10-20 hours in the blood and then become tissue macrophages in the tissues. Macrophages are important phagocytes that destroy invading bacteria and viruses through phagocytosis and by releasing oxidizing agents. They are found in tissues throughout the body, including the skin, lymph nodes, lungs, liver, spleen, and bone marrow, where they phagocytose foreign particles and pathogens.
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The document summarizes the architecture of the immune system. It describes the mononuclear-phagocytic system (MPS), also known as the monocyte macrophage system or reticuloendothelial system, as the second line of defense that is phylogenetically primitive but effective in host protection even without B and T lymphocytes. It also describes the lymphoid component, which includes primary organs like the thymus and peripheral organs like lymph nodes and spleen. The MPS originates from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow and differentiates into monocytes and tissue-based macrophages that carry out phagocytosis and antigen presentation.
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Monocytes exit the blood to become macrophages. They make up 2-6% of white blood cells and are phagocytic, defending against viruses and bacteria. Monocytes live for 10-20 hours in the blood and then become tissue macrophages in the tissues. Macrophages are important phagocytes that destroy invading bacteria and viruses through phagocytosis and by releasing oxidizing agents. They are found in tissues throughout the body, including the skin, lymph nodes, lungs, liver, spleen, and bone marrow, where they phagocytose foreign particles and pathogens.
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3. Chronic inflammation lasts weeks or months, with ongoing attempts to repair damage alongside continued inflammation and injury. It features mononuclear cells and may form granulomas.
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This document discusses the composition and types of white blood cells (leukocytes). It explains that leukocytes are formed partially in the bone marrow and lymph tissue and transported via blood to different parts of the body. There are two main types of leukocytes - granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes). The document provides details on the characteristics, functions and life spans of these different types of white blood cells. It emphasizes that leukocytes are mobile defensive cells that play an important role in the body's immune system.
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FUNCTIONS OF LEUKOCYTES
NEUTROPHILS
NEUTROPHIL FORMATION
NEUTROPHIL FUNCTIONS
MARGINATION & DIAPEDESIS
CHEMOTAXIS
OPSONIZATION
ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEM
NEUTROPHIL ABNORMALITIES
CONCLUSION
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- Giant cells are large multinucleated cells formed by the fusion of macrophages in response to infection or foreign material.
- There are physiological giant cells like osteoclasts and pathological giant cells seen in conditions like tuberculosis.
- Pathological giant cells include foreign body giant cells, Langhans giant cells, and tumor giant cells.
- Giant cells form through the fusion of macrophages mediated by cytokines, adhesion molecules, and oxidative stress. Nuclei and inclusion bodies can provide clues to the etiology of giant cell formation.
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INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS OF LEUKOCYTES
NEUTROPHILS
NEUTROPHIL FORMATION
NEUTROPHIL FUNCTIONS
MARGINATION & DIAPEDESIS
CHEMOTAXIS
OPSONIZATION
ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEM
NEUTROPHIL ABNORMALITIES
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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1. Neoplasia refers to abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth that can be benign or malignant. Benign tumors are slow-growing and localized, while malignant tumors proliferate rapidly and can spread throughout the body.
2. Tumors are classified based on their cell of origin - carcinomas arise from epithelial cells, sarcomas from mesenchymal cells. Special tumor categories include teratomas (derived from multiple germ layers), mixed tumors (containing two cell types), and blastomas (embryonic cell tumors more common in children).
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The innate immune system is genetically based and provides nonspecific protection against all antigens. It relies on surface barriers like skin and mucosa, as well as cells such as macrophages, mast cells, and natural killer cells. The adaptive immune system involves antigen presenting cells that process and present antigens to lymphocytes. Central immune organs include the red bone marrow, which produces hematopoietic cells, and the thymus, where T lymphocytes mature. Peripheral organs are the spleen, lymph nodes, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.
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2. Papillary thyroid carcinoma grows in papillary formations and originates from cuboidal epithelial cells that form follicles, with a characteristic "ground glass appearance".
3. Mucinous cystadenoma of the ovary presents as an ovarian cyst filled with mucinous fluid and has a wall lined by columnar epithelium in 2-3 layers.
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White blood cells, or leukocytes, can be divided into two main categories: granulocytes and agranulocytes. Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils which contain granules in their cytoplasm. Agranulocytes are lymphocytes and monocytes which do not contain granules visible under a light microscope. Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell and function to phagocytose bacteria and release enzymes to destroy microorganisms. Eosinophils and basophils play roles in allergic responses and attracting other white blood cells to sites of infection. Lymphocytes are involved in immune responses through antibody production and cellular
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- Classification and structures of viruses. Features of important viral diseases like influenza, hepatitis, HIV, rabies, dengue.
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Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells, accounting for up to 70% of circulating leukocytes. They are produced in high numbers in the bone marrow to act as sentinels of the innate immune system. Neutrophils have a short lifespan of 10 hours in circulation and up to 48 hours in tissues. They are recruited from blood vessels to sites of infection or damage, where they engulf and kill microbes using oxidative and non-oxidative mechanisms. Neutrophils also release neutrophil extracellular traps that ensnare bacteria. While defending against pathogens, neutrophils must be cleared from tissues to resolve inflammation and prevent tissue damage from their antimicrobial enzymes.
Transparencies and slides identification points
This document contains summaries of histopathology slides and transparencies presented by Sidra Nawaz for her MBBS 4th year histopathology midterm exam in 2012 at Sir Syed College of Medical Sciences for Girls. The slides and transparencies cover topics in cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and renal systems including aneurysm, myocardial infarction, thrombosis, adenocarcinoma of the colon, carcinoid tumor of the gut, chronic peptic ulcer, Crohn's disease, tubovillous adenoma, typhoid ileum, ulcerative colitis and others.
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200 POINTS TO RMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY - DR EJAZ WARIS
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The document discusses the spleen and reticuloendothelial system (RES). It describes the spleen's structure as being divided into red and white pulp. Red pulp contains sinusoids and cords that filter blood, while white pulp contains lymphatic nodules. The spleen plays roles in filtering blood, forming red blood cells, mounting an immune response, and storing iron. The RES consists of tissue-based macrophages that phagocytose pathogens and debris. It is a generalized innate defense system located throughout the body.
Macrophages
Macrophages are tissue-resident immune cells that differentiate from circulating monocytes. They perform important functions in innate and adaptive immunity such as phagocytosis of pathogens and cellular debris, antigen presentation, and secretion of inflammatory signals. Macrophages exist in different types defined by their activation mechanisms and secretory profiles, including classically activated M1 macrophages which promote inflammation and alternatively activated M2 macrophages which suppress inflammation. They play roles in tissue homeostasis, repair, and immune regulation through their phagocytic, secretory, and adaptive functions.
Inflammation
1. The cellular events of inflammation involve the adhesion of leukocytes to endothelial cells, their migration through blood vessels into tissues, and chemotaxis towards inflammatory stimuli.
2. Phagocytosis is the process by which phagocytes engulf pathogens or debris through opsonization, engulfment, degranulation, and degradation. Phagocytes release reactive oxygen species and enzymes to kill pathogens intracellularly.
3. The resolution of acute inflammation involves demolition of exudates by macrophages, with complete healing and return to normal tissue, or formation of granulation tissue and fibrosis if resolution is delayed. Prolonged inflammation can result in suppuration and abscess formation.
Abnormalities of WBC
The document discusses abnormalities of white blood cells, including quantitative abnormalities like leukocytosis and leukopenia as well as qualitative abnormalities involving the nucleus or cytoplasm of white blood cells. Some examples of qualitative abnormalities discussed include Pelger-Huet anomaly, Chediak-Steinbrinck-Higashi syndrome, and Auer rods. The types of white blood cells are described along with causes of conditions like neutrophilia, eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, and monocytosis. Inherited and acquired morphological and functional abnormalities of white blood cells are also summarized.
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Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required by the body in small amounts to perform cellular functions like growth and reproduction. They are categorized as either water soluble or fat soluble. Vitamin A is a fat soluble vitamin that is essential for vision, growth, reproduction, and maintenance of epithelial tissues. It exists in preformed and provitamin A forms found in both animal and plant products. Vitamin A plays important roles in visual cycle, growth, differentiation of cells, reproduction, acne/psoriasis, and prevention of chronic diseases. Deficiency can cause night blindness while toxicity from excess intake can harm a developing fetus.
Iron
Iron is an essential mineral that carries oxygen and forms part of hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle. It helps red blood cells carry oxygen to all parts of the body. Sources of iron include liver, red meat, lentils, beans, green leafy vegetables, and raisins. Iron is primarily absorbed in the small intestine and is stored in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. Factors that increase absorption include low body iron stores and conditions with increased red blood cell production.
Sodium
Sodium is the major extracellular cation in the body. It plays important roles in fluid balance, acid-base balance, glucose and amino acid absorption, and cell permeability. The total body sodium content is 4000 meq, with 50% in bones, 40% in extracellular fluid, and 10% in soft tissues. The daily sodium requirement is 5-10 g, though hypertensive patients should aim for 1 g. Common sodium sources include table salt, bread, vegetables, and dairy. Sodium levels are regulated by the kidneys, which filter and reabsorb most of the sodium from the glomerulus under control of aldosterone. Deviations from the normal serum sodium range of 135-145 meq/L can
Minerals
Inorganic constituents like macrominerals and microminerals make up 4-5% of body weight. Macrominerals include calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, chloride, sodium, and magnesium, which are essential at levels over 100mg per day. Microminerals in trace amounts include fluorine, vanadium, zinc, tin, copper, selenium, iodine, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, and molybdenum. Calcium is the most abundant macromineral and is crucial for bone and teeth formation, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and nerve transmission.
Microminerals
There are 2-4 grams of zinc distributed throughout the human body, with the highest concentrations found in the prostate, parts of the eye, and semen. Zinc is required for over 20 metalloenzymes and is essential for processes like taste sensation, insulin secretion, wound healing, and male reproduction through its role in spermatogenesis. Zinc deficiency can cause issues like growth retardation and impaired wound healing or spermatogenesis, while toxicity can also occur.
Microminerals2
Iodine is necessary for thyroid hormone production. Iodine deficiency causes goiter, an enlarged thyroid gland. Table salt is fortified with iodine to prevent iodine deficiency goiters. The thyroid gland contains most of the body's iodine, which is used to produce thyroid hormones. Dietary sources of iodine include seafood, fruits and vegetables from coastal areas, and drinking water.
Macrominerals
Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body, with 1kg total. 80% is found in bones and teeth, forming calcium phosphate. It plays important roles in producing ATP and other high-energy compounds, synthesizing DNA, RNA, proteins, and phospholipids, and regulating pH balance. Dietary sources include milk, cereals, vegetables, meat, and eggs. Phosphate is absorbed with help from vitamin D and acidic conditions, and excreted through reciprocal regulation with calcium levels by parathyroid hormone.
Macrominerals2
Potassium is required for several important biochemical functions in the body, including maintaining intracellular osmotic pressure and acid-base balance. It is also involved in cardiac and skeletal muscle activities, nerve impulse transmission, and protein biosynthesis. The average adult contains around 3500 mEq of potassium, mostly in skeletal muscle tissue. A daily intake of 3000-4000 mg is recommended, which can be obtained through foods like bananas, oranges, potatoes, beans, and liver. Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia can result from various conditions and can cause issues like muscle weakness, cardiac problems, and changes in mental status.
Macromineral
Potassium is required for several important biochemical functions in the body, including maintaining intracellular osmotic pressure and acid-base balance. It is also involved in cardiac and skeletal muscle activities, nerve impulse transmission, and protein biosynthesis. The average adult contains around 3500 mEq of potassium, most of which is found in skeletal muscle. A daily intake of 3-4 grams is recommended, which can be obtained through foods like bananas, oranges, potatoes, beans, and liver. Both hypokalemia (low potassium) and hyperkalemia (high potassium) can cause issues like muscle weakness, cardiac problems, and changes in mental status.
Cell locomotion
Endocytosis and exocytosis are mechanisms by which cells transport materials across their membranes. Endocytosis involves the inward movement and vesicle formation to bring particles into the cell, including phagocytosis of large particles and pinocytosis of small molecules. Exocytosis is the outward movement and release of particles from the cell. Cells can also move through ameboid movement using pseudopodia and ciliary movement using whip-like cilia along their surfaces. Both require energy and involve the polymerization and depolymerization of microtubules within the cytoskeleton.
Cells bds
The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and function:
- The cell membrane forms a protective barrier around the cell and is selectively permeable, allowing movement of materials in and out.
- Organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes, and the nucleus have specialized structures and functions that allow cells to carry out essential processes.
- Cells obtain energy through cellular respiration in mitochondria or fermentation in the absence of oxygen. The cell cycle and processes of mitosis and meiosis allow for cell growth and division.
Presentation
Anemia can be caused by several diseases that affect red blood cells and their ability to transport oxygen. These include blood loss, decreased red blood cell production, and abnormal red blood cells that do not function properly or survive as long as healthy cells. Certain genetic disorders and infections can also contribute to anemia.
Rbc
The document discusses the composition and roles of blood plasma and blood cells. It describes that plasma transports water, ions, gases, nutrients, wastes, proteins, antibodies, hormones and other organic molecules. It also notes that the main cell types in blood are red blood cells, which transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, and white blood cells, which carry out immune defense functions. The document further explains hematopoiesis, the formation of blood cells mainly in the bone marrow, and focuses on red blood cells and iron metabolism which is key to hemoglobin's oxygen transport role.
Transport machanism
Passive and active transport are two mechanisms that cells use to move substances across their membranes. Passive transport involves diffusion and osmosis, allowing substances to move freely across the membrane without energy input. Active transport requires energy and uses transmembrane proteins to transport substances against their concentration gradient or electrical potential.
Wbcs
White blood cells have varying lifespans depending on their type. Granulocytes last 4-8 hours in circulation and a few more days in tissues. Monocytes last 10-20 hours in blood and months in tissues as macrophages. Lymphocytes circulate for weeks or months between lymphoid tissue, blood, tissues, and lymph before returning to blood. Disorders that can affect white blood cell counts include leucopenia from radiation or drug exposure, and leukemias like lymphocytic or myelogenous leukemia, which can lead to infections, anemia, bleeding, and loss of energy.
Transport machanism
Cells use two main mechanisms to transport substances across their membranes: passive transport, which moves substances down their concentration gradient through diffusion or osmosis without energy usage; and active transport, which moves substances against their concentration gradient by using energy in the form of ATP through channel or carrier proteins.
Soruce of islamic law
The document discusses the sources of Islamic law, with the Holy Quran being the primary source. It provides an overview of the compilation of the Quran during the times of Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr, and Uthman. It discusses the theory of abrogation in the Quran and importance of Quran as the foundation for Islamic law. The document also briefly mentions other secondary sources of Islamic law such as hadith, ijma, qiyas, and customs.
Platelets physiology
Hemostasis involves three key events to prevent blood loss from a ruptured blood vessel:
1) Vascular constriction occurs via pain signals and local vasoconstrictors to reduce blood flow.
2) Platelets form a plug by adhering to the ruptured vessel wall and releasing chemicals to activate more platelets.
3) A blood clot forms through the coagulation cascade, where thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin strands that reinforce the platelet plug. Together, the plug and clot seal the rupture.
Glands
The document defines and classifies glands. It discusses that glands are aggregations of cells that produce secretions or excretions. Glands are classified as exocrine if they release their products onto epithelial surfaces through ducts, or endocrine if they release into the bloodstream. Exocrine glands are further classified based on their duct morphology and shape of secreting portions. The document also discusses the histological structure of exocrine glands.
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- 1. NEUTROPHILS and TISSUE MACROPHAGES
- 5. Monocyte-macrophage system (Reticuloendothelial system )
- 7. Name of cell Location Dust cells /Alveolar macrophages pulmonary alveolus of lungs Histiocytes connective tissue Kupffer cells liver Microglia neural tissue Epithelioid cells granulomas Osteoclasts bone Sinusoidal lining cells spleen Giant cells Connective Tissue