Metabolism] 08. ETC _ Part 3 - Key.pdf
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The document outlines the electron transport chain in metabolism. Glucose and pyruvate enter the mitochondria and are oxidized, producing NADH and FADH2. These electron carriers feed electrons into the electron transport chain, a series of complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons are passed from one complex to the next, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space, building an electrochemical gradient. At complex V, ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP through chemiosmosis. The process yields 38 ATP from each glucose molecule that enters the electron transport chain.
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![Metabolism Electron Transport Chain
2 NADH
2 NADH
2 NADH
2 NAD+
2 NAD+
2 NAD+
2 NADH
2 NAD+
2 NADH
2 NAD+ 2 FADH
2 FAD
Mitochondrial Matrix
Glucose
(2) Pyruvate
Pyruvate
Acetyl
CoA
NADH
NAD+
FMN
FMNH
Q
QH
FADH FAD
FMN
FMNH
Q
QH
NADH D.H. (CoQ )
Succinate D.H.
H+
(CoQ )
Q-Cyt-
Oxidoreductase
Cyt
F
F
+3
+2
[H+] = 10 mM
[H+] = 10 mM
H+
Cyt-c
Cyt-c
F
F
+3
+2
Cytochrome Oxidase
Cyt ( + )
3
F +3
F +2
2 H+
H O
H+
(F S)
[H+] = 10 mM
NADH
NAD+
Malate
OAA
M.D.H
Malate
Malate
Malate
2 NADH
2 NAD+
NADH
OAA
OAA Glutamate (A.A.)
Aspartate
Aspartate
- Keto Gluterate
- Keto Gluterate
Aspartate
Glutamate
OAA
M.D.H+
Malate
Aspartate
Shuttle
NADH NAD+
Glycerol-3-P DHAP
Glycerol-3-P
Shuttle
FAD
FADH
DHAP
Fatty-Acyl-CoA
FAD
FADH
Enoyl-CoA
Acyl CoA D.H. +
Glycerol-3-p D.H.+
FADH
B-oxidation
ETC TALLY
Glycolysis:
Transition:
Krebs:
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Rotor
Rod
ADP
Pi
ATP
Chemiosmosis
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ATP
2,4 D.N.P
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Histoxic Hypoxia
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Thermogenin
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ATP
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Oligomycin
-
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Aurovertin
2 ATP (S.P)=2 ATP
2 NADH=6 ATP
2 NADH=6 ATP
2 NADH=18 ATP
2 FADH=4 ATP
2 ATP (S.P)=2 ATP
38 ATP
Electron Transport Chain
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Fate maps diagrammatically represent the prospective fate of embryonic regions at an early developmental stage. They indicate which tissues or organs specific parts of the early embryo will develop into. Fate maps change over time as cells move and multiply. Different labeling techniques are used to construct fate maps, including natural cell markers, vital dyes, carbon particles, radioactive tracers, and transgenic techniques. Comparing fate maps across stages reveals cell lineage and morphogenetic movements during development. Fate maps have been instrumental for understanding embryonic development.
rnasynthesis-170228150825.pdf
The central dogma of molecular biology proposes a one-way flow of information from DNA to RNA to protein. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making RNA using DNA as a template in the 3' to 5' direction. There are three major classes of RNA - mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. Elongation of transcription occurs as successive nucleotides are added to the growing RNA chain. Termination happens via different mechanisms for different RNA polymerases, including recognition of specific sequences.
450Glycolysis (1).PDF
This document discusses glycolysis, the pathway by which glucose is broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP. It covers the key steps in glycolysis including the entry of glucose into cells, the preparatory phase which requires two ATP, and the energy production phase which generates 4 ATP and 2 NADH. The document outlines several of the enzymes involved such as hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, aldolase, and phosphoglycerate kinase. It also discusses how glycolysis is regulated through factors such as ATP/ADP ratios and enzymes like phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase that are regulated by allosteric effectors and phosphorylation.
Organ function Test.pdf
This document discusses tests used to evaluate organ function, including renal, liver, gastric, and pancreatic function tests. It provides details on tests that assess glomerular and tubular kidney function, such as creatinine clearance and urea clearance tests. It also describes liver function tests based on excretory, synthetic, and detoxification functions, including bilirubin levels and tests of albumin and clotting factor synthesis. Methods of evaluating gastric acid secretion like the pentagastrin stimulation test and augmented histamine test meal are outlined. Finally, it mentions using serum amylase and lipase to assess the pancreas.
Water & Electrolyte.pdf
The document discusses water and electrolytes in the human body. It states that water makes up 60-70% of body mass and is highest in newborns at 75% and decreases with age to less than 50% in older individuals. Water is involved in metabolic reactions, transport of solutes, regulation of temperature, lubrication of joints, and maintenance of cell structure. Total body water is about 42 liters in a 70kg adult, divided into intracellular and extracellular compartments. Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate are important ions that are regulated between intracellular and extracellular fluids.
Vitamins.pdf
This document defines vitamins and classifies them as either water soluble or fat soluble. It then discusses the vitamin thiamine (vitamin B1) in detail. Thiamine acts as a coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. Deficiency results in beriberi disease. The document also covers the structure, functions, deficiency and food sources of riboflavin (vitamin B2).
HB.pdf
Hemoglobin is a conjugated protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs. It is composed of globin and heme. Globin contains four polypeptide chains (two alpha and two beta or gamma or delta chains) and four heme groups. Heme contains iron that reversibly binds oxygen. Hemoglobin binding of oxygen is cooperative, allowing for efficient oxygen delivery to tissues. Its affinity for oxygen decreases in tissues due to Bohr and BPG effects, promoting oxygen release to tissues.
HB METABOLISM.pdf
This document summarizes heme metabolism and porphyrias. It discusses that heme is an iron-containing porphyrin that serves as a prosthetic group in hemoglobin and other proteins. Heme is synthesized through a three step process from glycine and succinyl-CoA. The first step involving ALA synthase is regulated by a feedback mechanism with heme. Disorders of heme synthesis can be genetic or acquired, such as lead poisoning disrupting the pathway. Porphyrias are a group of inherited disorders resulting from deficiencies in heme synthesis enzymes, causing accumulation of porphyrin precursors and symptoms like abdominal pain or neuropsychiatric issues.
l07_cytochromes-p450 (2).pdf
Cytochromes P450 are a large family of heme proteins that play an important role in metabolizing drugs and other toxins. They catalyze reactions by inserting one atom of oxygen into substrates using reducing agents like NADPH. P450s are responsible for the metabolism of many clinical drugs as well as endogenous compounds. Their activity can be induced or inhibited by other drugs, leading to interactions. Three sentences or less.
Fatty acid degradation
This document summarizes fatty acid degradation in three stages: 1) Mobilization of lipids from triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol, 2) Activation of fatty acids, and 3) Oxidation of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA which enters the citric acid cycle. Unsaturated and odd-chain fatty acids undergo specialized beta-oxidation cycles. Ketone bodies are produced from acetyl-CoA in the liver and act as an energy substrate for other tissues during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate availability.
Carbohydrate metabolism-1 (1).pdf
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism and glycolysis. It defines metabolism as the sum of chemical reactions in cells, and classifies pathways as catabolic (breaking down molecules) or anabolic (building molecules up). Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, capturing energy as ATP. It occurs in two phases: first investing energy to phosphorylate intermediates, then generating a net of two ATP per glucose. Key steps include hexokinase phosphorylation of glucose, phosphofructokinase committing glucose to the pathway, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase's oxidation reaction.
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