Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges. The meninges are the three membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. Meningitis can occur when fluid surrounding the meninges becomes infected. The most common causes of meningitis are viral and bacterial infections.
How do people get meningitis?
Bacteria that enter the bloodstream and travel to the brain and spinal cord cause acute bacterial meningitis. But it can also occur when bacteria directly invade the meninges. This may be caused by an ear or sinus infection, a skull fracture, or — rarely — some surgeries.
Symptoms of meningitis, septicaemia and meningococcal disease include:
a high temperature.
cold hands and feet.
vomiting.
confusion.
breathing quickly.
muscle and joint pain.
pale, mottled or blotchy skin.
spots or a rash.
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes, the airways that carry air to your lungs. It causes a cough that often brings up mucus. It can also cause shortness of breath, wheezing, a low fever, and chest tightness. There are two main types of bronchitis: acute and chronic.
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes, the airways that carry air to your lungs. It causes a cough that often brings up mucus. It can also cause shortness of breath, wheezing, a low fever, and chest tightness. There are two main types of bronchitis: acute and chronic.
Intro to TB
epidemiology of TB
Structure of Mycobacterium TB
pathogenesis of TB
Immunosuppression by Mycobacterium TB
types of TB
Clinical manifestation
Diagnosis
Treatment
Encephalitis is a rare yet serious disease that can be life-threatening.
Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue.
The most common cause is viral infections.
In rare cases it can be caused by bacteria or even fungi.
Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue.
Primary encephalitis- It occurs when a virus directly infects the brain and spinal cord.
Secondary encephalitis- It occurs when an infection starts elsewhere in the body and then travels to your brain.
Older adults
Children under the age of 1 year
People with weak immune systems
Primary (infectious) encephalitis
Common viruses, including HSV (herpes simplex virus) and EBV (Epstein-Barr virus)
Childhood viruses, including measles and mumps
Arboviruses (spread by mosquitoes, ticks, and other insects), including Japanese encephalitis, West Nile encephalitis, and tick-borne encephalitis
Secondary encephalitis: could be caused by a complication of a viral infection.
Varicella-zoster virus is responsible for causing a primary varicella infection (chickenpox) and a secondary herpes zoster infection (shingles). Although varicella typically manifests as a mild disease in otherwise healthy children, it can also manifest as a moderate-to-severe disease, most notably in immunocompromised and adult hosts. Acyclovir is the antiviral agent of choice for the management of varicella infections. Routine vaccination with Varivax has been very effective in reducing chickenpox incidence
Introduction to Meningitis for Medical StudentsNasrura
Meningitis is an inflammation (swelling) of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. A bacterial or viral infection of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord usually causes the swelling. However, injuries, cancer, certain drugs, and other types of infections also can cause meningitis. It is important to know the specific cause of meningitis because the treatment differs depending on the cause.
Intro to TB
epidemiology of TB
Structure of Mycobacterium TB
pathogenesis of TB
Immunosuppression by Mycobacterium TB
types of TB
Clinical manifestation
Diagnosis
Treatment
Encephalitis is a rare yet serious disease that can be life-threatening.
Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue.
The most common cause is viral infections.
In rare cases it can be caused by bacteria or even fungi.
Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue.
Primary encephalitis- It occurs when a virus directly infects the brain and spinal cord.
Secondary encephalitis- It occurs when an infection starts elsewhere in the body and then travels to your brain.
Older adults
Children under the age of 1 year
People with weak immune systems
Primary (infectious) encephalitis
Common viruses, including HSV (herpes simplex virus) and EBV (Epstein-Barr virus)
Childhood viruses, including measles and mumps
Arboviruses (spread by mosquitoes, ticks, and other insects), including Japanese encephalitis, West Nile encephalitis, and tick-borne encephalitis
Secondary encephalitis: could be caused by a complication of a viral infection.
Varicella-zoster virus is responsible for causing a primary varicella infection (chickenpox) and a secondary herpes zoster infection (shingles). Although varicella typically manifests as a mild disease in otherwise healthy children, it can also manifest as a moderate-to-severe disease, most notably in immunocompromised and adult hosts. Acyclovir is the antiviral agent of choice for the management of varicella infections. Routine vaccination with Varivax has been very effective in reducing chickenpox incidence
Introduction to Meningitis for Medical StudentsNasrura
Meningitis is an inflammation (swelling) of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. A bacterial or viral infection of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord usually causes the swelling. However, injuries, cancer, certain drugs, and other types of infections also can cause meningitis. It is important to know the specific cause of meningitis because the treatment differs depending on the cause.
Objective :
describe the morphology and structure of Neisseria meningitidis
describe the transmission and clinical features of meningitides
describe the process of development of meningitides
what is the diagnostic test required for Neisseria meningitidis
list the other causes of meningitis and its cfc finding
done by : asem shadid , college of medicine .
Meningitis is always cerebrospinal infection. Meningitis is a rare infection that affects the delicate membranes -- called meninges -- that cover the brain and spinal cord.There are several types of this disease, including bacterial, viral, and fungal.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
1. Meningitis
Meningitis is a condition in which the meninges gets inflamed and damaged. Meninges are
three layers (dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater) of protective tissue which surround
the brain.
Meningitis is caused by an infection of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and/or the meninges.
Cerebrospinal fluid is a fluid that is primarily produced in the ventricles of the brain and
present between the space of arachnoid and pia mater
Meningitis refers to the inflammation of the meninges. Infections (bacterial, viral, fungal)
are the common cause of meningitis, but it can also be a result of an injury, cancer or certain
medications.
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2. Causative agents
• Meningitis is mostly caused when the
microorganisms, such as bacteria, virus,
fungus or parasite enters the bloodstream and
reaches the brain and spinal cord. These
organisms settle inside the cerebrospinal fluid
or the meninges and develop an advanced
infection
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3. Types
• Based on the type of organisms that causes infection, meningitis is of the following types:
• Bacterial Meningitis:
• Bacterial meningitis is caused due to bacterial infection. It is a life-threatening condition and can
spread from one person to another. Bacterial meningitis usually occurs when the bacteria enters the
bloodstream and reaches the brain and the spinal cord.
• Bacterial meningitis if left untreated may lead to stroke, brain damage, hearing loss, paralysis and
ultimately death. Haemophilus influenza, Neisseria meningitides, and Streptococcus pneumoniae are
the most common form of bacteria that cause bacterial meningitis.
• Viral Meningitis:
• Viral meningitis is mostly caused due to enterovirus. It can also occur due to other viruses, such as
measles, chicken pox, and mumps.
• Fungal Meningitis:
• Fungal meningitis is a rare condition that occurs due to the entry of fungus in the bloodstream. Fungal
meningitis is caused when the person inhales fungal spores from the contaminated soil or from the
bird or bats droppings.
• Parasitic Meningitis:
• Parasitic meningitis is a fatal and rarest form of meningitis. It is mostly caused by the
parasite Naegleria fowleri.
• Non-infectious Meningitis:
• Non-infectious meningitis is caused by certain medical conditions, such as cancer, brain surgery, lupus,
and head injury. Medications, such as antibiotics (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin) and
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can also cause non-infectious meningitis.
11/9/2020
3
4. Clinical features
• The symptoms of meningitis depend on the age of a person and the type of
meningitis.
• Stiffness of neck
• Loss of appetite
• Sleepiness
• Irritability
• Lethargy
• Fever
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Severe headache
• Sensitivity to light
• Confusion
• Skin rash
• Difficulty in concentratin
11/9/2020 4
5. signs
• Signs of Meningitis in Newborns and Infants:
• Constant crying
• High fever
• Jaundice
• Stiffness in the body and neck
• Sleepiness
• Swelling of fontanel region (soft spot on a
baby’s head
11/9/2020 5
6. Risk factor
• Factors that increase the risk of meningitis include:
• An incomplete course of vaccination: An individual who has not completed the
course of vaccination is at increased risk of developing meningitis.
• Age: Meningitis mostly occur in children below the age of five years and individuals
older than 60 years.
• Suppressed immune system: The risk of meningitis in more in the individuals
having certain conditions that suppress the immune system, such as:
• HIV/AIDS
• Cancer
• Systemic lupus erythematosus
• Psoriasis
• Type-1 diabetes
• Individuals using immunosuppressants, such as corticosteroids and chemotherapy
areat increased risk of meningitis. Removal of the spleen also increases the risk of
meningitis.
• Living and working in crowded areas:
• Individuals living and working in crowded areas are at increased risk of meningitis.
This is because the risk of transfer of microorganism is more in large groups.
• Pregnancy:
• Pregnant women are at greater risk of developing meningitis associated with
listeriosis (an infection caused due to listeria bacteria).
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6
7. Diagnosis
• The doctor initiates the diagnosis by reviewing the medical history and signs and
symptoms of the individual. A physical examination is conducted to determine:
• Signs of infections near the head, ears and the spine
• Fever
• Heart rate
• Stiffness of neck
• Consciousness
• For confirming the diagnosis, the doctor recommends certain diagnostic tests, such
as:
• Lumbar puncture (a.k.a: spinal tap) is a diagnostic procedure in which the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is collected for examination. Microscopic examination is
done to identify the causative organism.
• A blood culture is done to determine the type of microorganism causing the
infection.
• Chest X-ray is performed to determine other infections, such as tuberculosis,
pneumonia, or other fungal infections, which may have led to meningitis.
• Imaging tests: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computerized tomography
(CT) scan of the head is also performed to evaluate the inflammation or to
determine any complications such as brain abscess or sinusitis.
• Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid is done to give a confirmatory diagnosis of
meningitis and the treatment options for meningitis depend on the type of
meningitis. 11/9/2020
7
8. Treatment
The doctor initiates treatment depending on the cause and type of meningitis.
• Bacterial Meningitis:
• Bacterial meningitis should be treated immediately and requires
hospitalization. The doctor prescribes:
• Antibiotics to reduce the infections
• Corticosteroids to reduce inflammation
• Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as paracetamol is recommended to
reduce fever
• Anti-convulsants are prescribed if the patient has seizures
• Intravenous fluids are recommended to prevent dehydration
• Viral Meningitis:
• Viral meningitis improves on its own within several weeks. Viral meningitis can be
treated by:
• Taking adequate rest
• Drinking plenty of fluids
• Using over-the-counter drugs for reducing fever and body pains
• In some cases, the doctor prescribes corticosteroids to reduce the inflammation of
the brain. The doctor may prescribe anti-convulsant drugs if the patient is
experiencing seizures
11/9/2020 8
9. Contd.
• Other Types of Meningitis:
• Fungal meningitis can be treated by using
anti-fungal agents.
• Non-infectious meningitis caused due to an
autoimmune disease or due to an allergy is
treated with corticosteroids. Usually in this
type of meningitis treatment is not required
as the condition gets cured on its own
11/9/2020 9
10. complications
• Meningitis may lead to severe, life-threatening complications if left untreated for
a long duration. It may lead to:
• Hearing impairment
• Vision loss
• Memory problems
• Arthritis
• Brain damage
• Hydrocephalus (Buildup of cerebrospinal fluid in the cavities of the brain)
• Migraine
• Seizures (sudden, uncontrolled movements of the body due to electrical
disturbances in the brain)
• Subdural empyema (accumulation of pus between the brain and the skull)
• Shock
• Gait problems
• Kidney failure
11/9/2020 10
11. Prevention and control
• Meningitis can be prevented by:
• Completing the course of vaccination
• Washing the hand before eating food and after
using the toilet
• Eating a healthy diet
• Taking adequate rest
• Exercising regularly
• Covering the mouth while coughing and sneezing
• Smoking cessation
• Avoiding contact with an infected person
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