This document provides an outline and overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the fundamental laws of inheritance. It discusses genetics prior to Mendel, Mendel's experiments crossing true-breeding pea plants, his establishment of the principles of dominance/recessiveness and segregation of alleles, and how his principles can be applied to understand human genetics through the use of pedigrees. The document serves to introduce Mendelism and Mendel's pivotal role in establishing the foundations of genetics.
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This PPT consists of 15 slides only explaining Pleiotropy. This is a phenomenon when one gene controls more than one trait , the traits may be related .Generally one gene's product acts for many reactions and so can affect more than one trait. Examples can be seen in pea Coloured flower and pigmentation in leaf axil, frizzle trait in chicken, fur colour and deafness in cats,Human pleiotropic traits are PKU,Sickle cell Anaemia. HOsyndrome , p53 gene etc
IF YOU ARE GOING TO DOWNLOAD THIS FILE, PLEASE NOTIFY me by sending a message via Facebook.
It's a pleasure to help you through my presentation. Thank you so much!
This PPT consists of 15 slides only explaining Pleiotropy. This is a phenomenon when one gene controls more than one trait , the traits may be related .Generally one gene's product acts for many reactions and so can affect more than one trait. Examples can be seen in pea Coloured flower and pigmentation in leaf axil, frizzle trait in chicken, fur colour and deafness in cats,Human pleiotropic traits are PKU,Sickle cell Anaemia. HOsyndrome , p53 gene etc
Law of Dominance - Recessive alleles will always be masked by dominant alleles .
Law of Segregation - At the time of gametes formation the two copies of each hereditary factor segregates so that offspring get one factor from each parent .
Law of Independent Assortment - Genes for one trait are not inherited together with another trait .
According to Hardy (England,1908) and Weinberg (Germany,1909), gene and genotype frequency of a Mendelian population remain constant generation after generation unless there is selection,mutation,migration or random drift.
Law of Dominance - Recessive alleles will always be masked by dominant alleles .
Law of Segregation - At the time of gametes formation the two copies of each hereditary factor segregates so that offspring get one factor from each parent .
Law of Independent Assortment - Genes for one trait are not inherited together with another trait .
According to Hardy (England,1908) and Weinberg (Germany,1909), gene and genotype frequency of a Mendelian population remain constant generation after generation unless there is selection,mutation,migration or random drift.
Discuss the methods Mendel utilized in his research that led to his success in understanding the process of inheritance
The science community ignored the paper, possibly because it was ahead of the ideas of heredity and variation accepted at the time. In the early 1900s, 3 plant biologists finally acknowledged Mendel’s work. Unfortunately, Mendel was not around to receive the recognition as he had died in 1884.
(no word count)Mendel used mathematics and experimentation to derivekendalfarrier
(no word count)Mendel used mathematics and experimentation to derive major principles that have helped us understand inheritance. His ideas were totally different than the explanation for passage of characteristics from parents to offspring that was common to his time.
Discuss at least two of his principles in detail, providing examples.
Describe how each principle contributes to genetic variability.
Discuss the significance of Mendel’s discoveries to modern biology.
part 2
respond to post 1 and 2 with 150 words.
post 1
Gregor Mendel is an Augustan monk. He lived and worked in a abbey in Brunn, Astria. In the 1860's he begin his study of genetics and heredity by breeding garden peas.
The first principle I will like to discuss is the law of segregation. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate (separate) from each other so that each gene carries only one allele for each gene. The example..
Round seeds segregation R
R
Wrinkled Seeds r
r (gametes)
The other I will discuss is the law of dominance. Its stated as, "In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one trait will appear in the next generation. Offspring that are hybrid for a trait will have only the dominant trait in the phenotype. You have a tall plant having the gene TT and a short plant having the gene tt.
Tall pea plant
T T
Short Pea plant t Tt Tt
t Tt Tt
This Punnet square shoes that if we cross a tall pea plant with genotype TT and a short pea plant with genotype tt. All offsprings will be tall with the genotype Tt. During gamete production, each egg and sperm cell receives just one of the two gene copies present in the organism, and the copy allocated to each gamete is random (law of segregation). In the law of dominance, an offspring receives a pair of alleles for a trait by inheriting homologous chromosomes from the parent organisms; one allele for each trait from each parent. Each parent contributes a single gamete, and a single randomly successful allele copy to their offspring and fertilization. Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance. He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent. Mendel tracked the segregation of parental genes and their appearance in the offspring as dominant or recessive traits.
POST2
Gregory Mendel, who was a monk and known as the father of genetics, discovered two laws that have contributed to Modern Biology. One of them was the law of inheritance. When he discovere ...
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
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5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
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combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
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2. OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
GENETICS BEFORE MENDEL
MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
MENDEL’S PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE
APPLICATION OF MENEDL’S PRINCIPLES TO
HUMAN GENETICS
MEDELIAN PRINCIPLES IN HUMAN GENETICS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
2
3. INTRODUCTION
Mendelism simply put, refers to the laws of
inheritance postulated by Gregor Mendel.
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian Monk who lived
between 1822-84.
He experimented on various plants species and animal
He was the first to state the universal laws governing
inheritance of traits.
Gregor Mendel is known as father of modern genetics
3
4. GENETICS BEFORE MENDEL
Before Mendel Heredity was a mystery
“The laws governing inheritance are quite
unknown; no one can say why the same peculiarity …
is sometimes inherited and sometimes not so; why the
child often reverts in certain characters to its
grandfather or grandmother or other much more
remote ancestor…”
- Charles Darwin, Origin of Species 1872
4
5. GENETICS BEFORE MENDEL
The concept of inheritance of physical ‘units’ (later
called genes) was accepted, and scientists had
reported on many hybridization experiments in both
animals and plants.
Yet no one had set forth principles of inheritance
which could be used as a universal theory to explain
how traits in offspring can be predicted from traits in
the parents.
5
6. MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
Gregor experimented with pea
plants, by crossing various
strains and observing the
characteristics of their offspring.
He also experiment on
drosophila, but much success
was recorded on pea plants
Between 1856 and 1863,
Mendel cultivated and tested
some 28,000 pea plants.
6
7. MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
The choice of Garden pea (Pisum sativum) was
due to the following reasons:
Can be grown in a small area
Produce lots of offspring
Produce pure plants when allowed to self-
pollinate several generations
Can be artificially cross-pollinated
7
8. MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
One peculiarity of pea reproduction is that the petals of
the flower close down tightly, preventing pollen grains
from entering or leaving. This enforces a system of self-
fertilization, in which the male and female gametes from
the same flower unite with each other to produce seeds.
As a result, individual pea strains are highly inbred,
displaying little if any genetic variation from one
generation to the next.
Because of this uniformity, we say that such strains are
true-breeding
8
9. MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
The true breed traits of the pea plant are:
Seed shape --- Round (R) or Wrinkled (r)
Seed Color ---- Yellow (Y) or Green (y)
Pod Shape --- Smooth (S) or wrinkled (s)
Pod Color --- Green (G) or Yellow (g)
Seed Coat Color ---Gray (G) or White (g)
Flower position---Axial (A) or Terminal (a)
Plant Height --- Tall (T) or Short (t)
Flower color --- Purple (P) or white (p)
9
10. Mendel focused on the study of inheritance of
one trait at a time.
In an experiment, Mendel crossed tall and dwarf
pea plants to investigate how height was
inherited.
This type of crossing between parents differing in
only one trait or in which only one trait is being
considered is termed monohybrid cross.
10
12. MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
All the offspring from the cross (First filialgeneration- F1)
were all tall regardless of the way he performed the cross
(tall male with dwarf female or dwarf male with tall
female).
Mendel noted that the dwarf characteristic seemed to
have disappeared in the progeny of the cross.
12
13. MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
Mendel decided to cross the F1 generation with each other
to see if the dwarf trait would reappear in the next
generation.
When he examined the progeny (F2 generation), he
found that they consisted of both tall and dwarf
plants in a ratio of approximately 3:1.
Mendel inferred that these hybrids carried a latent
genetic factor for dwarfness, one that was masked
by the expression of another factor for tallness.
He said that the latent factor was recessive and
that the expressed factor was dominant.
13
14. MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
Mendel repeated the experiment examining the
transmission of other traits such as flower colour, pod
colour.
The same pattern and results was observed
14
16. Dihybrid Crosses: The Principle of Independent
Assortment
Mendel also performed experiments with plants
that differed in two traits.
The purpose of the experiments was to see if the
two seed traits, color and texture, were inherited
independently.
16
17. He crossed plants that produced yellow, round
seeds with plants that produced green, wrinkled
seeds.
F1 seeds were all yellow and round, the alleles
for these two characteristics were dominant.
17
20. MENDEL’S PRINCIPLES OF
INHERITANCE
The result of Mendel’s experiments led to the principles
of inheritance.
It was published in 1865 through a single research paper,
‘Experiments in Plant Hybridization’
Unfortunately, this paper languished in obscurity until
1900, when it was rediscovered by three botanists—Hugo
de Vries in Holland, Carl Correns in Germany, and Eric
von Tschermak-Seysenegg in Austria.
20
21. Genes In Pairs
Genes In Pairs: Genetic characters are controlled by
factors (gene) that exist in pairs of alleles in individual
organisms and are passed from parents to their
offspring. When two organisms produce offspring,
each parent gives the offspring one of the alleles from
each pair
21
22. Dominance and Recessiveness
Dominance and Recessiveness: When two unlike
alleles responsible for a single character are present in
a single individual, one allele can mask the expression
of another allele. That is, one allele is dominant to the
other. The latter is said to be recessive.
22
23. The Law of Segregation
The Law of Segregation: During the formation of
gametes, the paired alleles separate (segregate)
randomly so that each gamete receives one allele or the
other.
23
24. The Law of Independent
Assortment
The Law of Independent Assortment: During gamete
formation, segregating pairs of alleles assort
independently of each other. Example: genes on
different chromosomes will segregate independently.
Linked genes (close together on one chromosome) do
not follow this law.
24
25. MEDELIAN PRINCIPLES IN HUMAN
GENETICS
Mendel’s principles can be applied to study the
inheritance of traits in humans.
The genetic analysis of human heredity depends
on family records, which are often incomplete.
25
26. Pedigrees diagram the relationships among family
members where
squares designate males and circles designate females,
a horizontal line represents mating and
vertical lines beneath reflect offspring.
Birth order is left to right,
afflicted individuals are shaded or filled in
26
27. Pedigrees : are used to identify
dominant and recessive
traits in human families
27
28. Mendelian inheritance in humans
d) Earlobe attachmenta) Mid-digital
hair
b) Tongue
rolling
c) Widow's peak e)
Hitchhiker's
thumb
f) Relative
finger length
All these traits (and more) are transmitted in Mendelian fashion in humans