Mendel
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Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk born in 1822 who is considered the "Father of genetics". He studied pea plants and discovered the basic principles of heredity through experimentation, though his work was not appreciated until 25 years after his death. His experiments distinguished between an organism's genotype, which are its genes, and its phenotype, which is how it appears physically.
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2. It describes Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle in the 1830s where he began developing his ideas about natural selection and his publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859.
3. The theory of natural selection is explained as individuals varying, some traits helping organisms survive and reproduce more successfully over generations, causing trait frequencies to change in populations over time.
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The document defines species richness, species evenness, and species diversity. It notes that species diversity incorporates both richness and evenness. It also discusses biodiversity as the total genetic variation among organisms and some reasons for preserving biodiversity, including potential new medicines from plants, pest resistance genes in crop wild relatives, and ecosystem services from diverse ecosystems. Finally, it introduces keystone species as those that play a key role in maintaining ecosystem diversity and structure, providing sea otters and their effect on kelp forests as an example.
Notes blood type
The document summarizes key information about human blood types:
1) Humans have 4 main blood types: A, B, AB, and O.
2) Blood types A and B are co-dominant traits, while O is recessive.
3) Type O blood is considered the universal donor as it can be donated to all other blood types, while Type AB is the universal recipient as it can receive donations from all other types.
Succession
Ecological succession is a series of predictable changes that occur in a community over time, typically resulting in an increase in species diversity. Succession can be primary, occurring in areas with no previous community traces like new lava, or secondary, in partially disturbed areas where soil survives. Pioneer species alter the environment making it suitable for other species in successional stages from grasses to shade-tolerant trees in a climax community.
Darwin and natural selection
1. The document outlines notes from a biology class lesson on Charles Darwin and the theory of natural selection.
2. It describes Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle in the 1830s where he began developing his ideas about natural selection and his publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859.
3. The theory of natural selection is explained as individuals varying, some traits helping organisms survive and reproduce more successfully over generations, causing trait frequencies to change in populations over time.
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Notes punnett squares
Reginald Punnett created the Punnett square, a diagram used to predict possible offspring genotypes and phenotypes from a genetic cross. A Punnett square works by writing the alleles of one parent across the top and the other parent down the side, then determining the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring through combination. An example problem shows a black heterozygous female guinea pig mating with a white male, resulting in offspring with 25% BB, 50% Bb, and 25% bb genotypes, and 75% black and 25% white phenotypes.
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Mitosis notes
Mitosis is the process by which a body cell divides into two daughter cells that are identical to the original parent cell. It occurs in six steps: interphase where the cell grows and copies its DNA; prophase where the DNA condenses; metaphase where chromosomes line up; anaphase where chromosomes are pulled apart; telophase where new nuclei form; and cytokinesis where the cell splits into two identical daughter cells. Mitosis is necessary for body growth, repair, and maintenance.
Competition
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Notes speciation
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Notes biotic abiotic factors
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Notes symbiosis
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Notes dihybrid crosses
This document provides instructions for completing a dihybrid cross involving two traits. It explains that a dihybrid cross involves two different traits, and it outlines the two main steps: 1) determining the gametes of the parents using FOIL and 2) constructing a Punnett square using the gametes to determine the possible offspring genotypes. It includes examples of determining gametes for different parental genotypes and instructions for filling out and coloring a Punnett square to show the possible offspring phenotypes. It concludes with a practice problem to complete.
Notes sex linked traits
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Mendels laws
The document summarizes Mendel's two laws of inheritance:
1. The Law of Segregation states that alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation so each offspring inherits one allele for a trait from each parent.
2. The Law of Independent Assortment states that genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other, with the exception of genes located close together on the same chromosome.
Notes incomplete codominance
Here is a made-up incomplete dominance problem:
Flower petal color:
RR = Red petals
YY = Yellow petals
RY = Orange petals
Cross a red-petaled flower with a yellow-petaled flower. Show the Punnett square and phenotype ratios.
Notes multiple alleles
- Study for the quiz on incomplete/codominance by reviewing notes on pages 12-13 and the incomplete/codominance worksheet.
- Notes on multiple alleles are on page 14. Multiple alleles means that more than two alleles control a trait. Rabbits can have dark gray, light gray, himalayan, or white fur determined by 4 alleles.
- The document provides examples of rabbit genotypes and phenotypes controlled by the C, cch, ch, and c alleles. It includes a practice problem and output activity to create a new multiple alleles trait.
Notes genetic drift
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Evolution of complex traits
The document discusses complex traits that have multiple interacting parts, such as eyes and blood clotting. It notes that opponents argue some traits are too complex to have evolved through small changes, but biologists have shown this is not true. Complex traits can evolve through natural selection accumulating small beneficial changes over time, and traits may have had different functions in the past and evolved into their current form.
Notes speciation
This document discusses speciation and the different types. It defines a species as a group that can interbreed and defines speciation as the origin of new species. It describes two main types of speciation: allopatric speciation which occurs when a population is separated geographically, and sympatric speciation which occurs without barriers. Sympatric speciation can happen through habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, or polyploidy. The document concludes with an activity where students will act out one of the speciation types.
Evolution of complex traits
The document discusses complex traits that have multiple interacting parts, such as eyes and blood clotting. It notes that opponents argue some traits are too complex to have evolved through small changes, but biologists have shown this is not true. Complex traits can evolve through natural selection accumulating small beneficial changes over time, and traits may have had different functions in the past and evolved to take on new roles.
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Notes punnett squares
Reginald Punnett created the Punnett square, a diagram used to predict possible offspring genotypes and phenotypes from a genetic cross. A Punnett square works by writing the alleles of one parent across the top and the other parent down the side, then determining the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring through combination. An example problem shows a black heterozygous female guinea pig mating with a white male, resulting in offspring with 25% BB, 50% Bb, and 25% bb genotypes, and 75% black and 25% white phenotypes.
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Cells are small because as they get larger, their volume increases faster than their surface area. This decreases the surface area to volume ratio, making it difficult for cells to efficiently exchange gases, nutrients, and wastes through their cell membranes. Maintaining a high surface area to volume ratio allows cells to effectively transport materials needed for survival.
Mitosis notes
Mitosis is the process by which a body cell divides into two daughter cells that are identical to the original parent cell. It occurs in six steps: interphase where the cell grows and copies its DNA; prophase where the DNA condenses; metaphase where chromosomes line up; anaphase where chromosomes are pulled apart; telophase where new nuclei form; and cytokinesis where the cell splits into two identical daughter cells. Mitosis is necessary for body growth, repair, and maintenance.
Competition
The document defines niche as the range of conditions a species lives in and how it obtains resources to survive and reproduce. A niche explains how a species fits into an ecosystem. Habitat is a species' location while niche includes location and occupation. The document also defines competition as occurring when organisms seek the same limited resources in the same place and time, and can be intraspecific or interspecific. The competitive exclusion principle states that no two species can occupy the exact same niche, while niche partitioning allows species to divide resources and coexist by each occupying a different niche.
Notes speciation
This document discusses speciation and the different types. It defines a species as a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Speciation is the origin of new species through evolution. The two main types of speciation discussed are allopatric and sympatric. Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is separated geographically, like squirrels separated by the Grand Canyon. Sympatric speciation can happen without geographic barriers through habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, or polyploidy. The document concludes with an activity where students will act out different speciation scenarios in short skits.
Notes biotic abiotic factors
The document defines key terms in ecology such as ecology, environment, and habitat. It explains that biotic factors refer to living organisms in an environment, while abiotic factors are non-living chemical and physical components. Limiting factors are defined as any biotic or abiotic element that limits an organism's survival and productivity, with examples given of how water and light can act as limiting factors for plants in different environments.
Notes symbiosis
Symbiosis is a close association between two different species. There are three types of symbiotic relationships: commensalism, where one species benefits while the other is not affected; mutualism, where both species benefit from the relationship; and parasitism, where one species benefits while harming the other. Examples provided include epiphytic plants in commensalism with trees, mycorrhizal fungi in a mutualistic relationship with plant roots, and tapeworms as parasites that live in animal digestive tracts and steal nutrients. The document concludes with a homework assignment to research and write about one example of mutualism and parasitism.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes (eggs and sperm) with half the normal number of chromosomes. During meiosis in humans, the number of chromosomes is halved from 46 to 23. Meiosis involves two cell divisions and produces four haploid cells from one original diploid cell, increasing genetic variation between offspring.
Trophic levels
Primary producers use energy from the sun or chemicals to produce organic molecules. Consumers rely on other organisms for energy and nutrients. There are different types of consumers including herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, scavengers, decomposers, and detritivores. Food chains show the transfer of energy between organisms through eating, while food webs show complex feeding relationships in an ecosystem. Trophic levels refer to the steps in a food chain, with primary producers at the base and increasing consumer levels above. Only about 10% of available energy is transferred between trophic levels.
Intro to genetics
This document provides instructions on creating a cover sheet for interactive notes on genetics and includes introductory information on genetics. It defines genetics as the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring. It defines key genetics terms including trait, allele, dominant allele, and recessive allele. It explains that individuals have two alleles for each gene, one from each parent, and how dominant and recessive alleles determine phenotypes.
Notes dihybrid crosses
This document provides instructions for completing a dihybrid cross involving two traits. It explains that a dihybrid cross involves two different traits, and it outlines the two main steps: 1) determining the gametes of the parents using FOIL and 2) constructing a Punnett square using the gametes to determine the possible offspring genotypes. It includes examples of determining gametes for different parental genotypes and instructions for filling out and coloring a Punnett square to show the possible offspring phenotypes. It concludes with a practice problem to complete.
Notes sex linked traits
The document discusses sex-linked traits which are traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes. It notes that females have two X chromosomes and are denoted XX while males have one X and one Y chromosome and are denoted XY. The X chromosome contains many more genes than the Y chromosome. It describes an experiment by Thomas Hunt Morgan which showed that eye color in fruit flies is sex-linked. It then explains that sex-linked disorders mainly affect males because females need two copies of a recessive gene while males only need one. It gives color blindness as an example and notes that carrier females have one normal and one recessive gene.
Mendels laws
The document summarizes Mendel's two laws of inheritance:
1. The Law of Segregation states that alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation so each offspring inherits one allele for a trait from each parent.
2. The Law of Independent Assortment states that genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other, with the exception of genes located close together on the same chromosome.
Notes incomplete codominance
Here is a made-up incomplete dominance problem:
Flower petal color:
RR = Red petals
YY = Yellow petals
RY = Orange petals
Cross a red-petaled flower with a yellow-petaled flower. Show the Punnett square and phenotype ratios.
Notes multiple alleles
- Study for the quiz on incomplete/codominance by reviewing notes on pages 12-13 and the incomplete/codominance worksheet.
- Notes on multiple alleles are on page 14. Multiple alleles means that more than two alleles control a trait. Rabbits can have dark gray, light gray, himalayan, or white fur determined by 4 alleles.
- The document provides examples of rabbit genotypes and phenotypes controlled by the C, cch, ch, and c alleles. It includes a practice problem and output activity to create a new multiple alleles trait.
Notes genetic drift
Genetic drift is a change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events, and is more likely to occur in small populations. Unlike natural selection, genetic drift is random and can cause changes in traits that are beneficial, detrimental, or neutral. Two types of genetic drift are founder effect, which occurs when a small group colonizes a new area, and population bottleneck, which is caused by a drastic reduction in population size, such as from a natural disaster.
Levels of biological organization
The document provides instructions for constructing interactive notes for an ecology unit. It tells the student to label the cover with their name and the unit topic. It then instructs them to staple paper to the cover and number the pages. The next pages will define and provide examples for 5 levels of biological organization - organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere. The student is then asked to find or draw pictures illustrating each level and label them accordingly.
Evolution of complex traits
The document discusses complex traits that have multiple interacting parts, such as eyes and blood clotting. It notes that opponents argue some traits are too complex to have evolved through small changes, but biologists have shown this is not true. Complex traits can evolve through natural selection accumulating small beneficial changes over time, and traits may have had different functions in the past and evolved into their current form.
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The document discusses complex traits that have multiple interacting parts, such as eyes and blood clotting. It notes that opponents argue some traits are too complex to have evolved through small changes, but biologists have shown this is not true. Complex traits can evolve through natural selection accumulating small beneficial changes over time, and traits may have had different functions in the past and evolved to take on new roles.
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The document describes the characteristics of a good graph, including using a ruler, giving the graph a title, labeling the axes and including units, numbering the axes such that the graph takes up half the page and numbers increase in consistent intervals, and drawing a best fit line rather than connecting data points. It then provides an example of a bad graph that lacks clear labels and spacing and wastes space, and notes issues one could find with it.
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Mendel
- 1. Notes: Mendel (page 4) Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) • “Father of genetics”
- 2. Notes: Mendel (page 4) Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) • “Father of genetics” • Austrian monk who studied pea plants
- 3. Notes: Mendel (page 4) Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) • “Father of genetics” • Austrian monk who studied pea plants • Work not appreciated until 25 years after his death
- 5. Genotype and Phenotype • Genotype = The genes (DNA sequence) of an organism
- 6. Genotype and Phenotype • Genotype = The genes (DNA sequence) of an organism • Phenotype = The way an organism looks
- 7. Mendel’s Experiment • Hand-written notes