Masters presentation

GEO-ELECTRICAL INVESTIGATION FOR GROUNDWATER
IN KUJE AREA COUNCIL, FCT, ABUJA,NIGERIA.

BY

ADEEKO TAJUDEEN OLUGBENGA
REG. NO. 08484019

SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, FACULTY OF SCIENCE,
UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA,
ABUJA.
2011.

GEO-ELECTRICAL INVESTIGATION FOR GROUNDWATER IN KUJE
AREA COUNCIL, FCT, ABUJA, NIGERIA.

BY
ADEEKO TAJUDEEN OLUGBENGA
REG. NO. 08484019

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT
OF PHYSICS, FACULTY OF SCIENCE,
UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA,
ABUJA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN APPLIED
GEOPHYSICS,
UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA.

ABSTRACT

 This study was carried out with the aim of demonstrating the application of Vertical
Electrical Sounding (VES) method of investigation in the exploration for groundwater for
irrigation and domestic use in Chikuku, Kiyi and Chibiri areas of Kuje.
 The ABEM Terrameter SAS 300C was used to carry out the investigation and Schlumberger
profiling, with an electrode spacing of 2-350m was employed in data collection. A total of 25
Spreads were sounded (forward and reverse) each for five (5) profile. The field data were
simulated using IP12WIN Computer interactive program. The results show that there are 4–5
geoelectric layers; topsoil (sandy/lateritic), weathered basement (clay and sandy clay),
weathered/fractured basement (clay;sand/clayey sand),fresh bedrock and bed rock within the
study area. From the analysis, the thickness of fractured and weathered basement in Chikuku,
Chibiri and part of Kiyi is small and can only accommodate shallow aquifer which shows that
the area has poor groundwater potential, but the VES 1 in part of Kiyi has very thick layer of
weathered/fractured basement and therefore promising good quantity of groundwater source.

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

EM Electromagnetic
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GDP Gross Domestic Product
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MH Magnesium Hazard
SAR Sodium Adsorption Ratio
SGI Shallow Groundwater Irrigation
VES Vertical Electrical Sounding
WHO World Health Organization

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Electrical Resistivities
Table 2.2: Resistivities of rocks with various water contents
Table 2.3: Criteria for Irrigation water use based on electrical conductivity
Table 2.4: Classification of Irrigation water based on SAR values
Table 2.5: Classification of groundwater samples based on total hardness
Table 4.1: Kiyi VES 1
Table 4.2: Kiyi VES 2
Table 4.3: Chikuku VES 3
Table 4.4: Chikuku VES 4
Table 4.5: Chibiri VES 5

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: The hydrological cycle or water cycle
Figure 2.2: Map of Abuja (FCT)
Figure 2.3: Mean monthly rainfall histogram for FCT
Figure 3.1: Water zones in the lithosphere
Figure 3.2: Porosity
Figure 3.3: Hydraulic gradient
Figure 3.4: Wenner array
Figure 3.5: Dipole-dipole array
Figure 3.6: Schlumberger array
Figure 3.7: The parameters used in defining resistivity
Figure 3.8: Electrode configuration used in resistivity measurement
(schlumberger array)
Figure 3.9: Current flow from a single current electrode
Figure 4.1: Vertical Electrical Sounding for Kiyi VES 1
Figure 4.2: Vertical Electrical Sounding for Kiyi VES 2
Figure 4.3: Vertical Electrical Sounding for Chikuku VES 3
Figure 4.4: Vertical Electrical Sounding for Chikuku VES 4
Figure 4.5: Vertical Electrical Sounding for Chibiri VES 5

TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER ONE
• INTRODUCTION
1. JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY
2. EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER TWO
• LITERATURE REVIEW
1. INTRODUCTION
2.HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND GROUNDWATER
3.HYDROGEOLOGY OF NIGERIA
4.LOCATION AND GEOLOGIC SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA
5.SOIL TYPE
6.AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS
7.IMPORTANCE OF GROUNDWATER
8.GROUNDWATER FLOW SYSTEM
9.GROUNDWATER QUALITY
1.FACTORS AFFECTING GROUNDWATER QUALITY
2.10 IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY
2.10.1 ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY
2.11 DOMESTIC WATER QUALITY
2.11.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF DOMESTIC WATER

 CHAPTER THREE
 MATERIAL AND METHOD
◦ BASIC CONCEPTS IN HYDRO-GEOLOGY
 GROUNDWATER SETTING FORMATION
 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDWATER
 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF ROCK
 GROUNDWATER RESOURCE APPLICATION
◦ GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
 SEISMIC METHOD
 GRAVITY METHOD
 ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
 MAGNETIC METHOD
 INDUCED POLARIZATION
◦ ONE, TWO, AND THREE DIMENSIONAL INVESTIGATIONS
◦ ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS
 WENNER ARRAY
 DIPOLE-DIPOLE ARRAY
 SCHLUMBERGER ARRAY
 3.5 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RESISTIVITY
 CHAPTER FOUR
 INSTRUMENTATION, DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
◦ INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATIONS
◦ SURVEY PROCEDURE AND RESULT
◦ DATA COLLECTION
◦ DATA ANALYSIS
◦ INFORMATION NEAR THE STUDY AREA
◦ INTERPRETATION
 CHAPTER FIVE
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
◦ CONCLUSION
◦ RECOMMENDATION
 REFERENCE

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
 1.0 Background studies
Government and Non Governmental Organization [NGOs] play important role in
the development of agriculture in Nigeria. Government decides to establish
agricultural programmes with aim of boosting greater production of crops and
livestock. Such programmes include: River Basin Development Authority
[RBDA], National Agricultural Insurance scheme [NAIS], Green Revolution,
Operation Feed the Nation[OFN], National Agriculture Land Development Agency
[NALDA], Agriculture Development Project[ADP],Directorate of Food, Road and
Rural Infrastructure [DFFRI], National Accelerated Industrial Crop Production
Programme [NAICPS] West African Rice Development
Agency[WARDA],National Accelerated Food Production Programme [NAFPP],
Agro-Service Centre, Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], Agricultural Loan
Scheme, International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD], Farm Settlement
Scheme, Co-operative Farming etc. The major objective of the Agricultural
programmes includes; to provide portable water to the rural area for agricultural
and domestic use, to alleviate unemployment or provide job for the teeming
population; to bring about changes in agricultural method and teach modern
farming practices to the youth; and to develop a modern farming system in order to
attract t the young and educated people into farming.
Agriculture according to Nigeria Poverty Eradication Strategy [vision 2020] is
basis for economic growth and structural transformation. In order word, economic
growth and structural transformation are propelled by the agricultural

sector in order to maximize the benefits of accelerated growth. Growth in the sector
will, therefore impact directly in growth of economy as well as employment.
Therefore accelerated development in small- scale agriculture which is persistent in
the rural areas will have direct benefit in poverty reduction in the rural areas and
help to slow-down the rural –urban migration. It will also ensure food security and
contribute immensely to health and well being of the population .Agriculture in
Nigeria is largely dependent on rainfall. However, given the erratic and extremely
unreliable nature of rainfall, probably due to climate variability, Irrigation
development is seen as an obvious strategy to increase agricultural production.
There are direct linkages between improved control over water and cropping and
related impacts which consistently underlie the Asian research finding that
irrigation development alleviates poverty in rural areas of developing countries
[Mello and Desai 1985, Chambers et al 1989, Hussain 2005]. Glob ally there is a
strong positive relationship between higher density of irrigation and lower poverty
rates, as Lipton et al [2003] indicates. In Africa, only 3% of cropland is irrigated
and the region has experienced very little reduction in poverty in the 1990s [World
Bank Report 2000]. In contrast, those regions that have the greatest proportion of
cultivated areas irrigated [namely East Asia, Pacific, North Africa and Middle East]
have experienced the greatest poverty reduction. One irrigation development
pathway involves the utilization of small reservoirs. However, the performance of
many of these systems is affected adversely by management problems and the
economic benefit relative to the investment is characteristically low and only
benefits a limited number of famers. The total potential of irrigable land in Nigeria
is put at million hectares. Irrigation of some of these arable lands could not
materialize due to the projected capital involvement in channeling surface water
over long distances to the irrigable

lands. Availability of groundwater is therefore a major asset that can greatly
influence agricultural production.
It has been more fully realized that refine quantitative answers are needed
concerning available groundwater resources and their management .Utilization of
groundwater continues to accelerate to meet the needs of irrigation, industrial,
urban, and suburban expansion. As groundwater development intensifies, users
become more interested in the response of aquifers to heavy pumping for example,
and the hydrogeology as a whole compete for available sources, this has brought
about awareness that one of the principal problems confronting hydrologist is
resource management. The resource, therefore, needs to be assessed in quantity and
quality to aid sustainable development of the study area in order to meet the
development agenda for Nigeria which is driven by Nigeria’s commitment to the
Millennium Development Goals [MDGs]
 1.1 Justification or Important of the Study:
This study presents research finding on the hydrogeological of groundwater for
irrigation and domestic use in Kuje area. The farmers within Kuje area are
increasingly using groundwater as a source of irrigation water due to the
unavailability of surface water in the dry season. There is need to investigate its
availability and suitability in order to ensure sustainability in the application and
possible expansion of groundwater irrigation in the area, according to FCT
geological map Kuje is mapped as agricultural zone .There is no doubt that water is
one of the most important inputs in agricultural production in Nigeria apart from
labour. More importantly almost all agricultural production depends on natural
rainfall. Therefore, crop yields are invariably poor since the rains are very erratic.
Groundwater

development for irrigation should therefore be really looked at since it
constitutes about 30.1% of the available fresh water on earth. Urbanization,
population increase dewatering of aquifers for irrigation and extensive use
of chemical fertilizers are some of the factors that have direct effects on
quality of groundwater resources especially in arid and semi arid region of
northern Nigeria. Hydro chemical data has the potential uses for tracing the
origin and history of water. Globally, the quantity and quality of
groundwater reserves is diminishing day by day. Therefore, any study that
can aid in identifying new sources or threats to groundwater is desirous not
only around the study area but anywhere. There is no life without water,
therefore, it is essential to safeguard the future of our water resources by
studying its past and present both quantitatively and qualitatively. [Arabi et
al, 2010].
 1.2 Evaluation and Management of Groundwater Resources
The evaluation and management of groundwater resources for any use
require an understanding of hydrogeological and hydro chemical properties
of the aquifer, sin ce these parameters control groundwater occurrence, its
quantity and quality for any use. That is, it is important to have the aquifer
characteristics such as geometry, hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity
data base readily available for developing local and regional water plans
and also to assess and therefore predict future groundwater availability and
suitability.

 1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the study is to investigate the
groundwater potential for domestic and irrigation use within
Kuje area.
Other objective of this research is to delineate the areas within
the survey area that have potential for groundwater for
domestic and irrigation use. Studies have shown that the
producing aquifers in these areas are usually limited to the
weathered overburden and favorable structural features, like
joints and fissures [Enslin, 1961].

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
 2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the review of relevant literature in
relation to the study. This includes the concept of
groundwater occurrence and movement, groundwater use in
the study area and the hydrochemistry if drinking and
agricultural (irrigation) water is also discussed in this
chapter.
 2.2 Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater
According to Freeze and cherry (1979), groundwater is
defined as the subsurface water that occurs beneath the water
table and flows through voids in the soils and permeable
geologic formations that are fully saturated. It does not exist
in isolation but it is part of an integral link if the hydrological
cycle as shown in fig 2.1 and a valuable supporter of
ecosystem.

Figure 2.1: The Hydrological Cycle or Water Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is driving by the energy of the sun and takes water from
stored water in oceans and transfers it through the atmosphere back oceans through
different routes. A component of rain that fall on the land surface infiltrates into the
soil with the remainder evaporating into the atmosphere or as runoff to rivers. Soil
moisture can both be taking up by plants and transpired or flow quickly as inter
flow to a river channel. Some of the infiltrated water go down deeply, eventually
accumulating above an impermeable bed, saturates available pores and forms
underground reservoir known as groundwater. The underground water-bearing
formation that is capable of yielding considerable amount of water is referred to as
an aquifer.

 2.3 Hydrogeology of Nigeria
The hydrogeological condition of an area is highly influenced by the characteristics
and structure of basic geology and climate. In Nigeria, the hydrogeological regions
and their characteristics are very similar to the local geological conditions, because
the climate zones of the country are mostly conformable to the geological regions.
Currently, a lot of hydrogeological studies have been conducted in the country in a
bid to increase water supply particularly to the rural community. Nigeria falls into
two but district subdivision namely, the basement complex and the sedimentary
areas.
The Basement complex present is about half the total surface area of the country
consisting of a central Northern block, Western block and on Eastern block. The
rock consists of Precambrian metal-sediments, guesses, granites and various
igneous intrusions.

Sedimentary Area of Nigeria comprise of a central and
Eastern southern block stretching from the Atlantic to the river
Benue, a middle blocks in the basins of the River Niger and
River Benue and Northern blocks –one in the northeast and the
others in the Northwest. The rocks are stratified formation of
late cretaceous to recent time aids consist of sandstones,
snares, mudstones, siltstones etc

Figure 2.2: Geologic map of FCT, Abuja

 2.4 Location and Geologic setting of the Study Area
Kuje, lies within the longitude 70 14’35” and latitude 80 53’47”.
The study areas, chukuku, kiyi and chibiri, kuje area, Abuja,
Nigeria is predominantly underlain by the Precambrian
basement complex rocks. The local lithological units in the
study area are migmatite gneiss, granite, and schistose gneiss.
The migmatite gneiss is the most wide spread rock unit. The
granite occurs in several locations. They are porphyritic and of
medium-coarse-grained texture, granites mostly occur as
intrusive, low-lying outcrops around the gneiss. They are
severely jointed and fairly incised by quartz veins. (Faleye et al,
2011).

GWAGWALADA-KUJE ROAD

• • KIYI
• • CHIBIRI

• KUJE TOWN ̌ ABUJA MUNICIPAL
AREA COUNCIL

• STUDY AREA

ABAJI AREA COUNCIL

 2.5 Soil Type
The influences of relief on the soils of the FCT are most evidenced on differences
in the depth of the soil, thickness and organic matter content and degree of
horizontal differentiation. Two parent materials, namely crystalline rocks of the
basement complex and Nupe sandstone are the sources from which the soils were
formed. The crystalline basement rocks occur in the northern two-thirds of the
territory while the Nupe sandstone occurs in the southern one-third.
 2.6 Aquifer Characteristics
Aquifer generally has some characteristics or parameters that describe the quantity
of groundwater that they can yield or produce and the rate of contaminant flow.
These characteristics include the aquifer geometry, hydraulic conductivity,
transmissivity, storativity and specific capacity. That is, each of these
Parameters does influence in one way or the other, the quantity of water that an
aquifer yields and the behaviour of contaminated flow.
Transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity describe the general ability of an aquifer
to transmit water, that is, over a unit thickness for hydraulic conductivity, and are
among the most important hydro-geologic data needed for managing groundwater
resources. Representative Transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity data are
required to ensure that the hydrologic assumptions and interpretations used in
regional water plans are valid (Mace et al, 1997). Storativity describes the change
in volume of water for a unit change in water level per unit area whiles specific
capacity is the pumping rate per unit drawdown. Transmissivity, hydraulic
conductivity, storativity and specific capacity data are needed in tasks such as:
 Quantitative assessment of groundwater

 Numerical modeling of groundwater flow,
 Prediction of well performance,
 Evaluation of how site-specific test result compare with the variability of the regional aquifer,
and
 Assessing the transport of solutes and contaminants.

It is important therefore to have a transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, storativity and
specific capacity database that are readily available for developing local and regional water
plans and to predict future groundwater availability.
 2.7 Importance of Groundwater
Groundwater has been exploited by mankind since the beginning of time and it is estimated
that around 700 billion m3 are drawn out of the earth’s aquifers each year. This makes
groundwater by weight, the primary mineral extracted from the earth, (Jean-Claude, 1995).
Groundwater has many advantages over surface water:
 Quantitatively, the storage and inertia capacity of homogeneous aquifer, their very steady
regime, allows them to act as buffers between very irregular rainfall and regular discharge
through springs-therefore compensating for climatic variations and more or less ensuring
water supply during periods of drought.
 Qualitative, because of the presence of protective surficial geological formations, their depth,
filtering capacity of most of their reservoirs and the clogging of river banks, aquifer
groundwater is generally better protected than surface water from massive pollution. The
physico-chemical quality and the temperature of groundwater are relatively constant and
in some case it can be consume without even bacteriological treatment .

constant and in some case it can be consume without even bacteriological treatment
 Economically, in countries having many aquifer, water is easily attainable, does not
require long pipelines and thus involves lower pumping, treatment and energy
costs.
 2.8 Groundwater Flow System
The discontinuous nature of permeable zone (weathered and fissured network)
makes regional groundwater movement largely non-existent, local groundwater
flow thus predominates. Generally however the groundwater flow distribution
coincides with the surface water flow distribution. That is, movement is generally
from higher grounds (highlands) towards valleys and stream channels.
The water-table, water which seeps through the ground moves downward under the
force of gravity until it reaches an impermeable layer of rock through which it
cannot pass. If there is no ready outlet for the groundwater in the form of a spring,
the water accumulates above the impermeable layer and saturates the rock. The
permeable rock in which the water is stored is known as the aquifer. The surface of
the saturated area is called the water-table. The depth of the water-table varies
greatly according to relief and the type of rocks. The water-table is far below the
surface of hill-tops but is close to the surface in valleys and flat low-lying areas
where it may cause water logging and swampy conditions. The depth of the water-
table also varies greatly with the seasons, when plenty of rain is available to
augment groundwater supplies the water-table may rise, but in dry periods, no new
supplies are available, and the water-table-lowered as groundwater is lost through
seepages and springs. (Van den Berg, 2008).

 2.9 Groundwater Quality
Groundwater quality can be defined as the physical, chemical and biological state
of groundwater. Temperature, turbidity, colour, and taste make up the list of
physical parameters. Naturally, groundwater contains ions slowly dissolve from
minerals in the soils, rocks, and sediments as the water travels along its flow path.
Some small portion of the total dissolved solids may have originated from the
precipitation water or river water that recharges the aquifer. The ions most
commonly found in groundwater quality analysis include: Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Hco3,
Cl- , So-24. Minor ions include No3- No2- F-, Co3- K+ Mn2+, and Fe2+. The
concentration of these ions gives groundwater their hydro-chemical characteristics,
and often reflects the geological origin and groundwater flow regime.
 2.9.1 Factors Affecting Groundwater Quality
An understanding of the factors that affect groundwater quality can help in decision
making on well depth and the best water quality for a particular application. The
major factors that directly or indirectly affect groundwater quality include:
 Climatic variations (rainfall, evaporation etc).
 Permeability and chemical makeup of the sediments through which groundwater
moves,
 Depth of groundwater from surface
 2.10 Irrigation water Quality
Besides affecting crop yield and soil physical conditions, irrigation water quality
can affect fertility needs, irrigation system performance and how the

water can be applied. Therefore, knowledge of irrigation water quality is critical to
understanding what management changes are necessary for long-term productivity.
 2.10.1 Assessment of Irrigation water Quality
In irrigation water quality evaluation, emphasis is placed on the chemical and physical
characteristics of the water and only rarely is any other factors considered important.
The quality of irrigation water is assessed based on the following criteria:
 Salinity (total amount of dissolved salts in water)
 Sodium hazard (the amount of sodium in the water) compared to calcium plus
magnesium)
 Magnesium hazard (MH)
These criteria in relation to irrigation water quality and their acceptable limits are
discussed below.
 Salinity Hazard
Salinity hazard is a measure of the TDS expressed in the unit of electrical conductance
and is the most influential salinity (electrical conductivity) in irrigation water affect crop
yield through the inability of the plant to complete with ions in the soil solution for
water (osmotic effect or physiological drought). The higher the electrical conductivity
(ECw), the less water is available to plants, even though the soil may appear wet. This is
because plants can only transpire “pure” water; usable plant water in the soil solution
therefore decreases dramatically as ECW increases. Table 2.3 shows suggested criteria
for irrigation water use based upon electrical conductivity.

Table2.3. Criteria for Irrigation Water use based on electrical conductivity (Bauder et al, 2007)

1 Leaching needed if used
2 Good drainage needed and sensitive plants will have difficulty obtaining stands.

Sodium Hazard
Sodium hazard is defined separately because of sodium’s specific detrimental effects
on soil physical properties.
According to Karanth (1994), excessive Na+ content of irrigation water renders it
unsuitable for soils containing exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions as the soil take up
Na+ in exchange for Ca2+ and Mg2+ causing deflocculation (dispersion) and
impairment of the tilth and permeability of soils. The sodium hazard is typically
expressed as the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) which is defined as;
SAR = Na [0.5(ca + mg)] -0.5, where chemical constituents are expressed in meg/l.
This index quantifies the proportion of sodium (Na2+) to calcium (Ca2+) and
magnesium (mg2+) ions in a sample. General classifications of irrigation water based
upon SAR values according to Bauder et al, (2007) are presented in Table 2.4

Table 2.4: Classification of irrigation water based on SAR values (Bender et al, 2007)

Magnesium Hazard (MH)
Magnesium is believed to be injurious to plants. Nonetheless, the harmful effect is greatly
reduced by the presence of calcium. The MH is defined as 100mg (ca + mg)-1 with the
chemical constituents expressed as meg/l. According to szabolcs and Darab (1964),
MH>50 in irrigation water is considered to be deleterious to most crops.
2.11 Domestic water Quality
Water is said to have good chemical quality for domestic used if it is soft, low in total
dissolved solids (TDS) and free from poisonous chemical constituents (Karanth, 1994).
Evidence relating chronic human health effect to specific drinking water contaminants is
very limited and in the absence of exact scientific information, scientists predict the likely
adverse effects of chemicals in drinking

water using laboratory animals studies and when available, human data from
clinical reports and epidemiological studies.
Much organization such as world Health organization (WHO), have established
standards (guideline values) or many normally represents of drinking-water. A
guideline value normally represents the concentration of a constituent that does not
result in any significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption (WHO, 2004).
A number of provisional guideline values has been established at concentration that
are reasonably achievable through practical treatment approaches or in analytical
laboratories, in these cases, the guideline value is above the concentration that
would normally represent the calculated health-based value. Guideline values are
also designated as provisional when there is a high degree of uncertainty in the
toxicology and health data.
 2.11.1 Physico-Chemical Parameters of Domestic Water
Physico-chemical parameters of water are the parameters that describe the physical
and chemical states of water. These parameters cause health problems beyond
certain concentration levels. Some of these physico-chemical parameters have been
discussed below.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
TDS comprise inorganic salts (principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,
bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates) and small amounts of organic matter that are
dissolved in water. Concentrations of TDS in water vary considerably in different
geological regions owing to differences in the solubilities of minerals. The
palatability of water with a TDS level of less than 600mg/l is

generally considered to be good; drinking-water becomes significantly and
increasingly unpalatable at TDS levels greater than about 1000mg/l (WHO, 2004).
The presence of high levels of TDS may also be objectionable to consumers. No
health-based guideline value for TDS has been proposed.
 Turbidity
Turbidity in drinking-water is caused by particulate matter that may be present from
source water as a consequence of inadequate filtration or from resuspension of
sediments. It may also be due to the presence of inorganic particulate matter in
some groundwater or sloughing of bio film within the distribution system. The
appearance of water with a turbidity of less than 5 NTU is usually acceptable to
consumers, although this may be very with local circumstances. No health-based
guideline value for turbidity has been proposed; ideally, however, median turbidity
should be below 0.1 NTU for effective disinfection, and changes in turbidity are on
important process control parameter (WHO, 2004).
 Temperature
Cool water is generally more palatable than warm water and temperature will
impact on the acceptability of a number of other inorganic constituents that may
affect taste. High water temperature enhances the growth of microorganisms and
may increase taste, colour and corrosion problems.
 Total Hardness
Hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium and to a lesser extent,
magnesium. It is usually expressed as the equivalent quantity of calcium

carbonate. Hardness caused by calcium and magnesium is usually indicated by
precipitation of soap scum and the need for excess use of soap to achieve cleaning.
Depending on PH and alkalinity, hardness above about 200mgli can result in scale
deposition, particularly on heating. Todd (1980) classifies groundwater samples based
on total hardness as shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5: Classification of groundwater samples based on total hardness (Todd, 1980)

PH
It is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The PH scale runs from 0 to
14 (very acidity to very alkaline) with 7 as neutral condition. Dissolved chemical
compounds and the biochemical processes in the water usually control the PH. In
most unpolluted water, PH is primarily controlled by the balance free Co2, Co3 and
Hco3 ions as well as natural compounds such as humic and fulvic acids. Although
PH usually has no direct impact on consumers, it is one of the most important
operational water quality parameters, the optimum PH required often being in the
range 6.5 – 9.5.

 Fluoride
Fluoride is the water derives mainly from dissolution of natural minerals in the
rocks and soils through which it passes. Macdonald et al (2005) indicates that, the
most common fluorine bearing minerals are fluorite, apatite and micas, and fluoride
problems tend to occur where these elements are most abundant in the host rocks.
Groundwater from crystalline rocks, especially granites are particularly susceptible
to fluoride build-up because they often contain abundant fluoride-bearing minerals.
Fluoride is essential for healthy living and hence fluoride causes health concerns
when concentrations in drinking-water are too low or high. It has been found to
have a significant mitigating effect against dental caries and is widely accepted that
some fluoride presence in drinking-water is important. Optimal concentrations are
usually around 1mg/I. The chronic ingestion of fluoride concentrations much
greater than the WHO (2004) guideline value of 1.5mg/I however is linked with
development of dental fluorosis.
 Chloride (Cl-)
Chloride in drinking-water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial
effluents, urban runoff containing de-icing salt and saline intrusion. Excessive
chloride concentrations increase rates of corrosion of metals in the distribution
system, depending on the alkalinity of the water. This can lead increased
concentrations of metals in the supply. No health-based guideline value is -
proposed for chloride in drinking-water. However, chloride concentrations in
excess of about 250mg/I can give rise to detective taste in water (WHO, 2004).

 Nitrate (No3)
Nitrate (No3) is found naturally in the environment and is an important. It is
present at varying concentrations in all plants and is a part of the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrate can reach both surface water and groundwater as a consequence of
agricultural activity (including excess application of inorganic nitrogenous
fertilizers and manures), from waste water disposer and from oxidation of
nitrogenous waste product in human and animal excreta, including septic tanks.
Some groundwater may also have nitrate contamination as a consequence of
leaching from natural vegetation. The WHO (2004), guideline values for both
nitrate are 50mg/I and 3mg/I respectively.
 Sodium (Na)
Sodium concentrations in potable water are typically less than 20mg/I, they can
greatly exceed this in some countries. It should be noted that some water softeners
can add significantly to the sodium content of drinking-water. No firm conclusions
can be draw concerning the possible association between sodium in drinking-water
and the occurrence of hypertension. Therefore, no health based guideline value is
proposed. However, concentrations in excess of 200mg/I may give rise to
unacceptable taste (WHO, 2004).
 Sulphate (So4)
Sulphates occur naturally in numerous minerals and are used commercially,
principally in the chemical industry. The highest levels usually occur in
groundwater and are from natural resources. In general, the average daily intake of
sulphate from drinking-water, air and food is approximately 500mg, food being the
major source, no health-based guideline is proposed for. However, because of

the gastrointestinal effects resulting from ingestion of drinking-water
containing high sulphate levels, it is recommended that health authorities
be notified of sources of drinking-water that contain sulfate concentrations
in excess of 500mg/I (WHO, 2004).
 Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium ranks eight among the elements in order of abundance and is a
common constituent of natural water. Important contributor to the hardness
of water, mg salts break down when health forming scale in boilers.
Concentrations greater than 125mg/I also can have a catholic and diuretic
effect. The magnesium concentration may vary from 0-100mg/I depending
on the source of treatment of the water. Chemical softening, reverse
osmosis, electrodialysis, or ion exchange reduces the magnesium and
associated hardness to acceptable levels.
 Iron (Fe)
Iron is one of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s crust. It is found in
natural fresh watekl/rs at levels ranging from 0.5-50mg/I. Iron is an
essential element in human nutrition. Estimate of the minimum daily
requirement for iron depend on age, sex, physiological status and iron
bioavailability and range from about 10-50mg/day (WHO, 2004). Iron
stains laundry and plumbing fixtures at levels above 0.3mg/I, there is
usually no noticeable taste at iron concentrations below 0.3mg/I, and
concentration of 1-3mg/I can be acceptable for people drinking anaerobic
well water.

 Calcium (Ca)
The presence of calcium in water results from passage through or over deposit of
limestone, dolomite, gypsum and gypsiferous shales. The calcium content may
range from zero to several hundred milligrams per litre, depending on the source
and treatment of the water small concentrations of caco3 combat corrosion of metal
pipes by laying down a protective coating. Biologically, calcium prevents the
absorption and transfer of toxic ions from the intestines to the blood. Calcium
contributes to dialysis or iron exchange and is used to reduce associated hardness.
 Manganese (Mn)
Manganese is one of the most abundant metals in the Earth’s crust, usually
occurring with iron. Manganese green sand is used in some location for potable
water treatment and is an essential element for humans and other animals and
occurs naturally in many food sources. Manganese is naturally occurring in many
surface water and groundwater sources, particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation
conditions, and this is the most important source for drinking-water. The guideline
value for manganese is 0.4mg/I (WHO, 2004).
 Rainfall
In Kuje there are two main seasons namely, rainy and dry seasons. The rainy season
falls within the period of April and October while the dry season falls within the
period of November and March.
The temperature drop from 950f (350c), during the dry season to 770f (250c), during
rainy season due to dense cloud cover, the relative humidity rises in the

afternoon to above 50%. The annual range of rainfall for the FCT is in the
order of 1100mm to 1600mm (Mamman et al 2000).
Kuje enjoys higher rainfall total, than the more southerly regions of FCT.
The FCT experiences heavy rainfall occurrence during the months of July,
August and September. These three months contribute about 60% of the
total rainfall in the region (Dawam, 2000).

Figure 2.4. Mean Monthly Rainfall
Histogram for FCT

CHAPTER THREE
 3.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD
 3.1 Basic Concepts in Hydro-Geology
 3.1.1 Groundwater Setting Formation
The occurrence and movement of groundwater depends on the subsurface
characteristics, like lithology, texture and structure. The different
formations are classified into the following types depending on their
relative permeability (Singhal and Gupta, 1999).
 Aquifer
An aquifer is a natural formation that contains sufficient amount of water
and permeable material to yield significant amount of water is wells or
springs. Rock formations that serve as aquifers are gravel, sand, fractured
granite etc. Aquifers can be classified into confined; unconfined; perched
and leaky aquifers (Sen, 1995).
 Aquiclude
This formation is capable of absorbing water slowly, but not capable of
transmitting it fast enough to yield enough water to a well. These confining
formations like crystalline rocks, clays and shales (Sen, 1995).
 Aquitard
Aquitards have insufficient permeability to act as an aquifer, but can still
serve as source or interchange between neighboring aquifer. These are
usually or silt or shale (Singhal and Gupta, 1999).

3.1.2 Classification of Groundwater
Subsurface waters are classified into different groups, depending on its physical occurrence
in the soil. Two layers can be broadly identified, which are the saturated and layer where
the pores are completely filled with water and the unsaturated layer where the voids contain
a mixture of water, moisture and air. The unsaturated layer can be divided into three
different groups. The soil moisture layer, intermediate layer and capillary layer, which is
essential for plants and differs in thickness depending on soil type and climate is the top
layer. The movement of water can be either upwards or downwards depending on gravity.
The intermediate layer is the second zone and here water is held due to intermolecular force
against the pull of gravity. The capillary layer is the third zone and is located above the
water table and the water here is held by the capillarity forces acting against gravity (Sen,
1995).

Figure3.1. Water zones in the lithosphere (after Sen, 1995)

3.1.3 Hydraulic Properties of Rock
The hydraulic properties of rock are important because they demonstrate the storage and
transmitting attributes of the aquifer.
Porosity
Porosity (n) is a measure of voids in the rock formation. It is defined as the ratio between
the volumes of the pores and that of the rock i.e. pore volume and total volume. Porosity is
of two types. Primary porosity is governed from the rock formation and secondary porosity
is developed through weathering (Sen, 1995),

is expressed in %

Figure 3.2:

Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability
Hydraulic conductivity (k) is a measure of the ability for a rock formation to
transmit water or the ability of a material to let a water current flow through it
when a hydraulic pressure is applied. It depends both on the properties of the
medium and of the fluid, which makes it rather complicated to use. A more
rational concept is permeability (k), which does not take the fluids properties

Into consideration (The permeability is linked not only to the volume of the
available water, but also to the size of the pores (Singhal and Gupta 1999).
Permeability = [water yields Sample section] / Hydraulic gradient

Hydraulic gradient =∆h/∆l

Figure 3.3

Transmissivity.
This parameter characterizes the ability of the aquifer to transmit water. It is defined
as the rate flow of water at unit hydraulic gradient through a cross-sectional area
releases from storage as the average head within this column declines by a unit
distance or the transmissivity of an aquifer layer is the product of the permeability
by its thickness (sen 1995).
Transmissivity = Permeability X Thickness.
is expressed in m2/s

 Storativity
The ability of an aquifer to store water is called storativity. It is defined as the
volume of water which a vertical column if the aquifer of unit cross-sectional area
releases from storage as the average head within this column declines by a unit
distance (Singhal and Gupta 1999).
 3.1.4 Groundwater Resource Applications
Groundwater can be located indirectly through remote sensing data. Since EM
radiation only penetrates a few millimeters into the ground in visible region and a
few meters in the microwave region, indicators on the surface like different
geological, hydrological, vegetation phenomenon can help locate and approximate
the quantity of groundwater (Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000). The different types of
groundwater indicators can be divided into two different groups (1) direct
indicators and (2) indirect indicators.
The direct indicators are directly related to groundwater establishments, i.e.
recharge zones, discharge zones, soil moisture and vegetation. Indirect indicators
could be different rock and soil types, structures including fracture zones,
landforms, and drainage characteristics.
Feature associated with Recharge/Discharge zones surface water bodies like lakes,
ponds, rivers, creeks etc are indicators of recharge /discharge zones. Near-infrared,
thermal infrared and microwave are highly sensitive to surface moisture. Since
discharge zones have shallow water-tables and lower reflectance than the recharge
zones, discharge and recharge zones can be separated. Even the shape s of the water
body can determine whether it is a recharge or a discharge zone. Depending on if a
river gets thinner or thicker downstream, it is

evidently loosing or getting richer in water and can therefore be classified as either
recharge or discharge area. Other indicators on discharge areas are due to the
surface moisture a divergence in vegetation and temperature (Singhal and Gupta,
1999).
 Soil Moisture
The intensity of soil moisture can easily be detected throughout the EM spectrum.
On the panchromatic band high moisture content shows as darker photo-tones.
Moisture can also be easily detected in the NIR and the thermal-IR where wet areas
appear cooler because of the evaporation, i.e. darker, than the dryer parts (Singhal
and Gupta, 1999). Except for moisture, there are two other factors that can reduce
soil reflectance i.e. surface roughness and organic matter (Lillesand and Kiesfer,
2000).
 Vegetation
Vegetation can be a direct indication of groundwater. Lush vegetation associated
with lineament could be a sign on possible bedrock fractures, with higher porosity
and permeability that allows for root systems easier to develop and water to be
stored. Some vegetation is better indicators than others. Plants which are used for
agriculture purposes could be irrigated and are therefore bad indicators (Taylor et
al, 1999). In general phreatophytic vegetation refers to shallow water-table where
as xerophytic plants would indicate dry arid conditions (Singhal and Gupta, 1999).
Vegetation strongly absorbs energy in the wave length bends 0, 45-0, 67 um, which
is the chlorophyll absorption bends. What our eyes consider as healthy vegetation is
a strong green colour, which means a strong absorbance of blue and red and a high
reflectance of green. If a plant is exposed to some kind of stress that interrupts its
natural growth and productivity which

ρa=

--------------------3.4

Resistivity surveys can take different forms of arrangement of
the current and potential electrodes. In most cases, there are
always two (2) current electrodes and two (2) potential
electrodes. Normally the potential electrodes are placed between
the current electrodes. Schlumberger configuration is considered
in this study. In the schlumberger arrangement, the spacing
between the potential electrodes “a” is fixed, and is less than the
separation between the current electrodes “L” which is
progressively increased during survey. The apparent resistivity is

------------------3.5

However, for most cases, L2>>a2, hence

ρa= ----------------------------3.6

What is actually measured in the above equation is the apparent resistivity
ρa, and as it implies, it depends on the mode of spacing of the electrodes.
The equation also implies that when the ground is uniform, the resistivity
should be constant and will not depend on the surface location or electrode
spacing. Generally, the potential electrodes are placed between the two
current electrodes.

CHAPTER FOUR
 4.0 INSTRUMENTATION, DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
INTERPRETATION
 4.1 Instrumentation and Applications
The equipment required in a geo-electrical resistivity survey include a
power source, tape, electrodes (current and potential) cable, crocodile clip,
hammer, and the resistivity meter (ABEM Terrameter).It’s electronic
device automatically calculates the value of V/I and digitally displays it in
Milli Ohms (mΩ), Ohm (Ω), or Kilo Ohms (kΩ)
 4.2 Field Procedure
Electrical resistivity method exploits the large contrast in resistivity
between ore bodies and there host rocks that occur as good conductors. Its
principle is very simple, it involves a measurement of potential difference
across electrodes, after a direct current or a low frequency alternating
current has been injected into the earth by means of current electrodes.
What is actually measured is the resistance since the resistivity values are
averages over the total current path length. The resistivity of the subsurface
is then a function of the magnitude of the current, the recorded potential
difference, and the geometry of the electrodes array. The spacing of the
electrodes can take different methods, which in most cases involves the
placement of the potential electrodes between the current electrodes. Two
main techniques used in electrical resistivity survey are the vertical
electrical sounding [VES] and the resistivity profiling method. In most
surveys, both procedure are employed and could be used with either

 schlumberger or the wenner configuration. Vertical electrical sounding [VES] is
used for the purpose of determining the vertical variation of resistivity. The current
and potential electrodes are maintained at the same relative spacing and the whole
spread is progressively expanded about a fixed central point. Since the aim of
investigation is the depth, the schlumberger configuration is commonly used for
VES investigations as increase in the current electrode separation create more
penetration and hence reaches greater depth. It is also a useful technique in
environmental applications. For example, due to the good electrical conductivity of
ground water, the resistivity of a sedimentary rock is much lower when it is
waterlogged than in the dry state.
 The survey covered three settlements, namely, settlement A (Kiyi), settlement B
(Chukuku), and settlement C (Chibiri). Two (2) settlements have two points of
investigation (sounding point) which are settlement A and B and the other have one
(1) point of investigation i.e. settlement C. Survey were carried out when the
ground was dry in all the settlements. The three (3) settlements have electrode
spacing (m) for current electrode and (m) for potential electrode with their

different geometric factor which L is calculated by K = where L is half current

electrode spacing and ι is half potential electrode spacing. The ABEM Terrameter
SAS 300C was used to carry out the investigation and Schlumberger profiling, with
an electrode spacing of 2-350m was employed in data collection. A total of 25
Spreads were sounded (forward and reverse) each for five (5) profile.
 4.3 Data Collection
 In Settlements A, B and C, the survey was carried out during the dry season but the
electrode connection with the ground was watered to ensure good contact.

 4.4 Data Analysis
The ABEM Terrameter SAS 300C was used to carry out the investigation and
Schlumberger profiling, with an electrode spacing of 2-350m was employed in data
collection. A total of 25 Spreads were sounded (forward and reverse) each for five (5)
profile. The field data were simulated using IP12WIN Computer interactive program,
by plotting apparent resistivity values against the corresponding distances traversed.
This provides an idea of the minimum and maximum apparent resistivity values at
various points along the profiles.
 4.5 Information near the Study Area
Lithologic information obtained in the vicinity of the study areas, using VES reveals
the presence of various soil types at various depths. Some of the information obtained
are:
 Kuchiyaku Kuje Area
Geophysical and Geotechnical characterization of foundation Beds at Kuchiyaku Kuje
Area, Abuja Nigeria by Faleye et al (2011), revealed that the VES interpretations
delineated topsoil, the layer resistivity ranges from 199 to 1947Ωm, weathered
basement, the layer resistivity ranges from 32 to 540Ωm and the fractured/fresh
bedrock, the layer resistivity ranges from 495 to 16986Ωm within the study area with
maximum depth to bedrock of about 31m.
 Lugbe FHA
Investigation of groundwater potential at Mrs Bukola: site Lugbe FHA Abuja by
Toark and Partners Ltd march 2009. The borehole may be drilled to a depth of about
38-40mtrs through the weathered zone and possibly fractured aquifer. Revealed that
the area is underlain by a fractured

basement rocks, mainly mica-riched granite gneiss bedrock and the
borehole may be drilled to a depth of about 38-40m through the weathered
zone and possibly fractured aquifer.

FIG. 5.1: VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING CURVE FOR KIYI VES 1

FIG. 5.2: VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING CURVE FOR KIYI VES 2

FIG. 5.3: VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING CURVE FOR CHIKUKU VES 3

FIG. 5.4: VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING CURVE FOR CHIKUKU VES 4

FIG. 5.5: VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING CURVE FOR CHIBIRI VES 5

INTERPRETATION
The result of the 25 Spread points each for five (5) profiles are
presented in table 4.1 to 4.5. The simulated results of the 25
Spread points each for five (5) profiles in three (3) Settlements
reveal the presence of 4 – 5 geoelectric layers. These layers are
grouped as: topsoil (clayey; sandy or lateritic), weathered
basement (clays/sandy clays), slightly weathered/fractured
basement (clayey sand), fresh bedrock and bedrock.
The first geoelectric layer correspond to the topsoil with resistivity
values ranging from 3.065 to 1948 ohm-m while thickness varies
from 0.1164 to 1.821m.The second and third geoelectric layer
with resistivity values ranging from 2.444 to 1783 ohm-m and
2.576 to 1812 ohm-m while thickness varies from 0.2036 to
9.519m and 0.48 to 166.7m respectively. The mean thickness is
20m (weathered /fractured basement). The fourth geoelectric
layers which has resistivity values ranging from 824.9 to 9905
ohm-m with the thickness of 22.56m.The fifth layer which is
characterized by high resistivity values of 420000 ohm-m. The
layer extends infinitely into the earth subsurface. From the
analysis, the thickness of weathered/fractured zone found in
Chikuku, Chibiri and part of Kiyi gives use to shallow aquifer
which shows poor groundwater potential, but the VES 1 in part of
Kiyi has very thick layer of weathered fractured basement and
therefore promising good quantity of groundwater source.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The method of investigation adopted by this study has helped in the
identification of the aquiferous units and has provided an understanding of
aquifer dimension especially the thickness of the weathered basement, the
depth to bed rock and fractured zones which are required for locating
points with high potentials for groundwater occurrence. The geophysical
investigation survey and the local geology of the study area, reveal the geo-
electric parameters established through the computer analysis that the
sounding points is hydro logically prolific especially in VES 1. From the
analysis, the thickness of fractured and weathered basement in Chikuku,
Chibiri and part of Kiyi is small and can only accommodate shallow
aquifer which shows that the area has poor groundwater potential, but the
VES 1 in part of Kiyi has very thick layer of weathered/fractured basement
and therefore promising good quantity of groundwater source. The
underground water condition of the study areas shows that water could be
seen in region of weathered/fractured basement that were delineated.
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
The investigation will serve as an avenue to update groundwater data bank
of the study area for those whose responsibility is the provision of safe
drinking water to the entire populace around the area. It will also help in
planning agricultural practices in advising the farmers on choosing the
appropriate crops to be cultivated around the study area.

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Addenda, vol.1.Recommendation, NCW classifications
WA675,

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