One of the most effective means for protecting marine and coastal biodiversity is through the establishment and proper management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), which is an umbrella term towards the description of a wide range of protected areas for marine conservation around the world.

1. Faculty of Fishery Sciences

2. Introduction
One of the most effective means for
protecting marine and coastal
biodiversity is through the
establishment and proper management
of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs),
which is an umbrella term towards
the description of a wide range of
protected areas for marine
conservation around the world.

3. Why MPA?

5. Inception of an Idea
• Founded in 1948, IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature).
• IUCN brings together States, government agencies and a diverse range of non-governmental
organizations in a unique world partnership: over 1000 members in all, spread across 160 countries.
• Seeks to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and
diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically
sustainable.
• The 1972, Second World Parks Conference, called on IUCN to “define the various purposes for which
protected areas are set aside; and develop suitable standards and nomenclature for such areas” (Elliott
1974).

6. Classification of MPAs in accordance to Working
Group of IUCN 1978:
Ten categories were proposed, defined mainly by management objective, all of which were considered important, with
no category inherently more valuable than another:
Group A: Categories for which Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) will take special
responsibility
• I Scientific reserve
• II National park
• III Natural monument/national landmark
• IV Nature conservation reserve
• V Protected landscape
Group B: Other categories of importance to IUCN, but not exclusively in the scope of CNPPA
• VI Resource reserve
• VII Anthropological reserve
• VIII Multiple-use management area
Group C: Categories that are part of international programmes
• IX Biosphere reserve
• X World Heritage site (natural)

7. Limitations in the Draft of 1978
• It did not contain a definition of a protected area;
• Several terms were used to describe the entire suite of ten categories;
• A single protected area could be in more than one category;
• The system lacked a marine dimension.

8. Revision and proposals for new categories
In 1984 CNPPA, now known as The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA)
established a task force to update the categories.
• The task force reported in 1990, advising that a new system be built around the 1978 categories
I–V, whilst abandoning categories VI–X (Eidsvik 1990).
• At the three-day workshop in 1992 World Parks Congress in Caracas, Venezuela it was
proposed that a category must be maintained that would be close to what had previously been
category VIII for protected areas where sustainable use of natural resources was an objective.
• The Congress supported this and in January 1994, the IUCN General Assembly meeting in
Buenos Aires approved the new system.
• Guidelines were published by IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre later that
year (IUCN 1994).

9. Revision and proposals for new categories
These set out a definition of a “protected area” – “An area of land and/or sea especially
dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and
associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means”–
and six categories:
• Areas managed mainly for:
• I Strict protection [Ia) Strict nature reserve and Ib) Wilderness area]
• II Ecosystem conservation and protection (i.e., National park)
• III Conservation of natural features (i.e., Natural monument)
• IV Conservation through active management (i.e., Habitat/species management area)
• V Landscape/seascape conservation and recreation (i.e., Protected landscape/seascape)
• VI Sustainable use of natural resources (i.e., Managed resource protected area)

10. Definition
• A global definition specifically for MPAs - as distinct from the general definition of a protected
area - was first adopted by the IUCN in 1999. The definition was later revised in 2012 for
‘protected area’ as
“a clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or
other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated
ecosystem services and cultural values”.
• Marine Protected Area (MPA):
“any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated
flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other
effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment. (Resolution 17.38 of the
IUCN General Assembly, 1988, reaffirmed in Resolution 19.46 (1994).

11. Marine Protected Area (MPA)
 An MPA always includes the marine environment but may also include coastal land areas and islands.
 An MPA is generally the total area of sea it encompasses exceeds the area of land within its boundaries, or the
marine part of a large protected area is sufficient in size to be classified as an MPA in its own right.
 It has some form of protection, usually legal but not necessarily. For example, in the Pacific, many MPAs are established
by customary tradition.
 The degree of protection is not necessarily the same throughout the area; most large MPAs are zoned into areas of
different impact and usage.
 The MPA and the provisions for its management should cover not only the seabed but also at least some of the water
column above with its flora and fauna.
 MPAs are not just relevant for natural features but also for protecting cultural features such as wrecks, historic
lighthouses and jetties.

12. Marine protected areas within wider ocean governance.

14. Objectives common to all six protected area
categories
 All protected areas should aim to:
• ●● Conserve the composition, structure, function and evolutionary potential of
biodiversity;
• ●● Contribute to regional conservation strategies (as core reserves, buffer zones, corridors,
stepping stones for migratory species etc.);
• ●● Maintain diversity of landscape or habitat and of associated species and ecosystems;
• ●● Be of sufficient size to ensure the integrity and long term maintenance of the specified
conservation targets or be capable of being increased to achieve this end;
• ●● Maintain the values for which it was assigned in perpetuity;
• ●● Be operating under the guidance of a management plan, and a monitoring and
evaluation programme that supports adaptive management;
• ●● Possess a clear and equitable governance system

16. CATEGORY VI
• Areas that conserve ecosystems and habitats, together with associated cultural values and
traditional natural resource management systems.
• They are generally large, with most of the area in a natural condition, where a proportion is under
sustainable natural resource management and where low-level non-industrial use of natural
resources compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the area.
Primary objective
To protect natural ecosystems and use natural resources sustainably, when conservation and
sustainable use can be mutually beneficial.
Other possible objectives which may apply in a category VI
 To promote low-level and sustainable use of natural resources, considering ecological,
economic and social dimensions;
 To promote social and economic benefits to local communities where relevant; whilst
conserving biodiversity;
 To facilitate inter-generational security for local communities’ livelihoods – therefore
ensuring that such livelihoods are sustainable.

17. Distinguishing features
• ●●Category VI protected areas have the sustainable use of natural resources as a means to
achieve nature conservation, together and in synergy with other actions more common to the
other categories, such as protection.
• ●●Category VI protected areas aim to conserve ecosystems and habitats, together with associated
cultural values and natural resource management systems. Therefore, this category of protected
areas tends to be relatively large
• ●●The category is not designed to accommodate large-scale industrial harvest.
• ●● In general, IUCN recommends that a proportion of the area is retained in a natural
condition, which in some cases might imply its definition as a no-take management zone
• ●● IUCN recommends that decisions need to be made at a national level and sometimes even
at the level of individual protected areas.

18. Compatibility of fishing/collecting activities in different management categories – a preliminary
assessment.

20. Marine park
• A marine park is a type of marine protected area (MPA).
• Marine parks are multiple-use MPAs, meaning they have different zones allowing different
types of activities.
• Marine parks usually allow recreational activities, such as boating, snorkeling, and sport
fishing.
• Most marine parks also include zones for commercial fishing, sometimes called “Open zones”.
• They may also include “No-take zones”, which prohibit extractive activities, such as fishing,
mining, and drilling.
• They are used by the community and often have facilities to encourage their use.
• Prone to overuse and pollution.

21. Representative Model of an MPA

22. Some well known marine parks around the
Globe
1. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, United States:
• Located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
• It covers approximately 1.5 million square kilometers (583,000 square miles).
• It is the largest marine protected areas (MPAs) globally.
2. Coral Sea Marine Park, Australia:
• Spanning an area of around 989,842 square kilometers (382,180 square miles).
• This marine park is situated off the northeastern coast of Australia.
• It is known for its diverse coral reefs, deep-sea canyons, and important habitats for species.
3. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia: T
• This marine park is located off the northeastern coast of Australia and covers an area of
about 344,400 square kilometers (133,000 square miles).
• It is the largest coral reef ecosystem globally and is recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage site.
4. Mariana Trench Marine National Monument, United States:
• Situated in the western Pacific Ocean.
• This marine monument encompasses the Mariana Trench,
• It spans an area of approximately 251,263 square kilometers (97,030 square miles).

23. Some well known marine parks globally
5. Phoenix Islands Protected Area, Kiribati:
• Located in the central Pacific Ocean.
• This marine protected area covers approximately 408,250 square kilometers (157,626 square miles).
• It is renowned for its pristine coral reefs, biodiversity, and unique marine ecosystems.
6. Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument, United States:
• Encompasses the chain of islands and atolls in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
• This marine monument has an area of around 362,073 square kilometers (139,797 square miles).
• It provides vital habitat for endangered species like Hawaiian monk seals and green sea turtles.
7. Chagos Marine Protected Area, United Kingdom:
• Situated in the Indian Ocean, this marine protected area covers approximately 640,000 square
kilometers (247,100 square miles).
• Renowned for their rich biodiversity and pristine coral reefs.
8. Ross Sea Marine Protected Area, Antarctica:
• Established in the Southern Ocean, this marine protected area spans an area of around 1.55 million
square kilometers (598,000 square miles).
• It is home to unique and vulnerable species, such as Antarctic toothfish and Weddell seals.

24. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National
Monument, United States:
• Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Monument) in the Northwestern Hawaiian
Islands comprises one of the largest protected areas in the world.
The Monument, a vast, remote, and largely uninhabited marine region, encompasses an area of
approximately 139,793 square miles (362,061 square kilometers) of Pacific Ocean in the
northwestern extent of the Hawaiian Archipelago.
• Covering a distance of 1,200 miles, the 100-mile wide Monument is dotted with small islands,
islets, and atolls and a complex array of marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
• This region and its natural and historic resources hold great cultural and religious significance
to Native Hawaiians.
• Also home to a variety of post-Western-contact historic resources, such as those associated
with the Battle of Midway.
As such, the Monument has been identified as a national priority for permanent
protection as a Monument for its unique and significant confluence of conservation,
ecological, historical, scientific, educational, and Native Hawaiian cultural qualities.

25. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National
Monument, United States

26. The Great Barrier Reef, Australia
• Stretching for 1,429 miles over an area of approximately 133,000 square miles , the Great Barrier
Reef is the largest coral reef system in the world.
• The reef is located off the coast of Queensland, Australia, in the Coral Sea.
• The reef, which is large enough to be visible from space, is made up of nearly 3,000 individual
reefs.
• Much of the Great Barrier Reef is a marine protected area, managed by the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park Authority of Australia.
• There are over 1,500 species of fish, about 400 species of coral, 4,000 species of mollusk, and
240 species of birds, plus a great diversity of sponges, anemones, marine worms, crustaceans,
and other species.

27. The Great Barrier Reef, Australia
• It also holds great scientific interest as the habitat of species such as the dugong (‘sea cow’) and
the large green turtle, which are threatened with extinction.
• Beneath the ocean surface, there is an abundance and diversity of shapes, sizes and colours; for
example, spectacular coral assemblages of hard and soft corals, and thousands of species of
reef fish provide a myriad of brilliant colours, shapes and sizes.
• The internationally renowned Cod Hole near Lizard Island is one of many significant tourist
attractions.
• Other superlative natural phenomena include the annual coral spawning, migrating whales,
nesting turtles, and significant spawning aggregations of many fish species
• No other World Heritage property contains such biodiversity.

28. Species diversity of The Great Barrier Reef,
Australia

29. Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park, Kenya
• Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park, in the Indian Ocean, is located off the south coast of
Kenya.
• The park encompasses a marine ecosystem that includes four
small islands surrounded by coral reefs.
• The three Mpunguti Islands are partially covered by dense equatorial rain forest,
while Kisite Island is covered in low grasses.
• More than 250 species inhabit Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park, including angelfish,
pufferfish, green sea turtles, hawksbill turtles, dolphins, and humpback
whales. Seagrasses and tropical seaweeds also thrive in the park.
• Kisite Mpunguti is a major destination for snorkelers and scuba divers.

30. Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park, Kenya
• The warm water is clear, and the tropical ecosystems have species that exist nowhere else in
the world.
• One of the most unusual species is the coconut crab, the largest land crab in the world.
• The legspan of a coconut crab can be up to a meter (3 feet).
• The dolphins that live in Kisite Mpunguti are also popular with tourists, who visit the park in boats,
called dhows, from the mainland.

31. Kisite Mpunguti Marine Park, Kenya

32. East End Marine Park, U.S. Virgin Islands
• East End Marine Park protects the largest barrier reef system in the Caribbean Sea.
• It encompasses 155 square kilometers (60 square miles) of coral reef, shallow sea, and
other marine habitats.
• East End also protects the eastern end of the island of St. Croix, including about 19 kilometers
(12 miles) of coastline.
• Because East End includes both marine and terrestrial (land) habitats, it is considered
a hybrid park.
An estimated 400 species of tropical fish live in and around the East End, while 17 species of
nesting seabirds rely on the park for food and shelter.
• Seagrass communities also thrive in East End.
• Seagrass is an important species, one of the few plants that live directly in the ocean.
• Sea turtles, manatees, fish, and many species of seaweed depend on the seagrass habitat for
survival.

33. East End Marine Park, U.S. Virgin Islands
• Elkhorn and staghorn corals dominate the reefs.
• Various species of brain coral, lettuce coral, star coral, and starlet coral are also found there. .
The park is also home to endangered green turtles, hawksbill turtles, and leatherback turtles.
• East End includes a turtle refuge.
• The park also includes no-take zones, which are off-limits to fishing and harvesting in order to
protect the turtles and other threatened species.
• Most of East End Marine Park is made of open zones, where most extractive activity,
including commercial fishing, is allowed.
• The only activity prohibited throughout the park is the removal of coral.
• Other zones are limited to recreational activities, such as sport fishing, boating,
and scuba diving.

34. East End Marine Park, U.S. Virgin Islands

35. Formation Guidelines of MPA

36. Formation Guidelines:
Scientific importance
• Value for research and monitoring
Biogeographic criteria:
• Presence of rare biogeographic qualities or representative of a biogeographic “type” or types
existence of unique or unusual geological features
Ecological criteria
• Ecological processes or life-support systems (e.g. as a source for larvae for downstream areas)
• Integrity, or the degree to which the area, either alone or in association with other protected areas
encompasses a complete ecosystem
• The variety of habitats
• Presence of habitat for rare or endangered species
• Presence of nursery or juvenile areas
• Presence of feeding, breeding or rest areas
• Existence of rare or unique habitat for any species
• Degree of genetic diversity within species

37. Formation Guidelines:
Naturalness
• Extent to which the area has been protected from, or has not been subject to, human-induced
change
 Economic importance
• Existing or potential economic contribution due to protection (e.g. protection of an area for
recreation, subsistence, use by traditional inhabitants, appreciation by tourists and others, or as a
refuge nursery area or source of economically important species)
Social importance
• Existing or potential value to local, national or international communities because of its heritage,
historical, cultural, traditional, aesthetic, educational or recreational qualities

38. Formation Guidelines:
International or national significance
• Existence of any national or international designation , Potential for listing on a national or
international system.
• Practicality or feasibility
• Degree of insulation from external destructive influences
• Social and political acceptability, degree of community support
• Accessibility for education, tourism, recreation
• Compatibility with existing uses, particularly by locals

40. Distribution of MPAs in India
• India’s coastline supports almost 30% of its human population.
• Coastal fisheries are immensely important, both economically and in terms of environmental
health.
• India continues to be the 7th largest fishing nation in the world.
• In India, PAs that fall-in whole or in part-within swath of 500 m from the high tide line and to
marine environment are included in the Marine Protected Area Network.
• There are a total of 128 marine Protected Areas in India.
• Out of these, there are four Marine National Parks, sixty-seven Marine Sanctuaries, National
Parks and Wild Life Sanctuaries, three Marine Biosphere Reserves, three Ramsar Coastal
Wetlands, one Tiger Reserve (Sunderbans), one National Mangrove Genetic Resource Centre
and Gene Centre and the Coral Reefs of Lakshadweep (seventeen), thirty two Mangrove
Notifies Forests.
• Four national parks (having area130 km2) and 16 wild life sanctuaries (185 km2) have been
identified for conservation measures.
• Apart from this, 17 parks and 28 wild life sanctuaries have been proposed/ existing on the island
territories of India.

41. MPs In India
India has six marine national parks which are hotspots of bio-diversity and home
to a number of marine creatures including Olive Ridley sea turtles, saltwater
crocodile as well as marine mammal known as Dugong .
The six marine national parks are:
• 1. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• 2. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary in Odisha
• 3. Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park in Tamil Nadu
• 4. Malvan Marine Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra
• 5. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• 6. Marine National Park in Gujarat

42. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park in Andaman
and Nicobar Islands

43. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park in Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
• The Rani Jhansi Marine National Park lies within Ritchie’s Archipelago, 14 km northeast of South
Andaman Islands and southeast of Middle Andaman Island.
• This archipelago includes the islands of North, Middle, and South Button, Outram, Henry
Lawrence, Inglis, John Lawrence, Wilson, Nicholson, Peel, Havelock, Neill, and the southernmost,
Sir Huge Rose (notified as a Sanctuary in 1987).
• Of these islands, Outram (1900 ha), Henry Lawrence (6563 ha) and John Lawrence (4200 ha) form
the Rani Jhansi Marine National Park.
• This Park has a total area of 25,614 ha, of which 12,770 ha comprises land and the rest is a marine
ecosystem surrounding these three islands (Andrews 2000).
• The natural habitats of the park include lagoons, coral reefs, beaches, lowland evergreen rain
forest, semi-evergreen rain forest and mangrove forests.
• This site still has some intact tropical evergreen and semievergreen forests, mangrove forests and
extensive coastal lagoons. The Park was established to protect the marine life, especially corals,
fish and turtles.

44. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park in Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
• The Park is considered rich in faunal diversity.
• Forty-five reptiles, 12 amphibians and 21 mammals species are reported from the Park
• Some of the endemic species of reptiles are Daniel’s Forest Lizard Bronchocela
danieli (Endangered) and Andaman Island Grass Skink Mabuya
andamanensis (Vulnerable) (Anon. 2001).
• Andaman Water Monitor, Varanus salvator andamanensis is quite common in creeks
and forest.
• Four species of sea turtles are found, namely the Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea,
Green Turtle Chelonia mydas, Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata and
Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coriacea.
• Over 80 species of corals are reported from just one part of the Park.
• The coral reef fauna is extremely rich.

45. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary in Odisha

46. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary in Odisha
• The Gahirmatha (Marine) Wildlife Sanctuary of Odisha, India that lies between the mouths of the
Dhamra and Barunei Rivers covers 35 km of coast.
• In addition to territorial water area of Bay of Bengal, the sanctuary includes adjoining mangrove
reserve forests, accreted beaches and sand bars and mud flats.
• The Sanctuary consists of 27km2 of land mass area and 1,408km2 area of water body with
725.50km2 core area and 709.5km2 of buffer area
• 64 species of fishes were recorded from Gahirmatha coast.
• Total 41 species of molluscs are recorded, of which nassa mud snail, spindle cone, horn snails,
button tops and clams are more visible.
• Tachypleus gigas, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda are among the primary species of Horse Shoe
Crabs.

47. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary in Odisha
• Out of six hundred fifty-six globally threatened faunal species in India, sixty-nine (10% of India)
distributed in Odisha, comprising 16 critically endangered, 21 endangered and 32 vulnerable
categories.

48. Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park in Tamil
Nadu

49. Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park in Tamil
Nadu
• The Gulf of Mannar running down south from Rameswaram to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu, India,
with a total area of 10,500 Km(sq.)
• Lying in the south of the Palk bay harbors 21 islands.
• The Gulf has a number of offshore platform reefs, patch reefs and coral pinnacles, which lie
from south of the Pamban Pass to north-east of Tuticorin.
• The Gulf of Mannar area is the last refuge of any significance off the Indian coast where the most
endangered mammal, Dugong (Dugong dugon) occurs.
• Coral reefs comprise of 94 coral species under 37 genera, 10 species of sea grasses and high
density of macro-algal species.
• Ninety species of sponges, 119 species of annelid fauna, 450 species of molluscs, and 22 species
of bivalves have been reported from this region by earlier workers.
• This region harbors mangrove ecosystems.

50. The Malvan Marine Sanctuary, Sindhudurg

51. The Malvan Marine Sanctuary, Sindhudurg
• The Malvan Marine Sanctuary (MMS) is located in Malvan Taluka of Sindhudurg District.
Sindhudurg district formed in 1981, presently comprises the taluka of Kudal, Malvan, Devgad,
Kankawali, Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Dodamarg and Vaibhavwadi.
• This Sanctuary, together with some adjoining areas also harbours mangrove vegetation.
• A total of 58 species of Phytoplankton were recorded (49 species of Bacillariophyceae, 8 species
of Dinophyceae, and one species of Cyanophyceae).
• A recent study conducted by Hardikar et al. in 2017, showed 57 phytoplankton species falling
under five classes namely diatoms (40 sp.), dinoflagellates (9 sp.), Chlorophyceae (5 sp.),
Cyanophyceae (2 sp.), and Dictyochophyceae (1 sp.) prevailed off Malvan were recorded.
• Phytoplankton forms the primary source in the marine food chain.
• The density ranged from 5000 to 22,10,000 cells/litre.
• 21 species of corals have been reported from MMS and surrounding area, making the total number
of coral species 30 across Sindhudurg coast.
• A recent survey carried out in 2020 by Mangrove Foundation and Bharati Vidyapeeth, Pune
showed presence of 13 species of corals within the Sanctuary area.

52. The Malvan Marine Sanctuary, Sindhudurg
• A recent survey by Mangrove Foundation and Bharati Vidyapeeth, Pune from 2020 has reported 13
species of seaweeds.
• Of the total seven species of sea turtles found globally, four species are known to occur in MMS
region namely Green turtle Chelonia mydas, Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata, Loggerhead
Caretta caretta, Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea .
• The fishes of the family Carangidae form the dominating group out of 15 species among the
important edible fishes.
• Total of Seven species of marine mammals have been recorded directly and indirectly along the
Malvan shore.
• Indian Ocean Humpback Dolphin and Finless Porpoise are the frequently sighted marine
mammals .
• Total three species of dolphins, one finless porpoise and three species of whales have been
recorded.

53. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands

54. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National
Park in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Located at 29 kms. west of Port Blair is one of the oldest and most important spot for viewing
marine diversity in A & N Islands.
• It was established in 1983 with a view to protect and conserve biodiversity of coral reefs,
mangroves and other marine ecosystems.
• Spread over fifteen lush green vegetated islands in the labyrinth group and covering an area of
281.50 sq. kms.
• The biodiversity consists of tropical evergreen forests, luxuriant mangroves, coral reefs and a
variety of marine fauna.
• Rich marine life consists of variety of coral reefs, colourful fishes like Starfish, Angelfish;
Mollusks, Shells, Turtles, Saltwater crocodiles etc.
• More than 300 species of coral reef fishes, clown fish, cleaning wrasse, butterfly fish, sharks,
sting rays, mantay rays, grouper, batfish and blue fin jack occur in the park.
• Other common marine animals incude jellyfish, starfish and varieties of sea anemone, sea
cucumber, sea lilly, sea pens, sea fans, feather star, giant clams, crabs and octopus can also be
found.

55. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• The beaches of the islands such as Boat, Tarmugli, Rutland and Twins are the most important
nesting grounds for four species of marine turtles: green sea, leather back, Hawksbill and Olive
Ridley who breed between October and May.
• Over 300 species of Coral reef fishes, jelly fish, starfish and varieties of sea anemones, sea
cucumber and sea urchins., dolphins, turtles and sharks as well as dugongs.
• All the islands are surrounded by fringing reefs that grow up to 40m, but majority grows
upto a depth of 8 m.
• Thus far, 120 species have been recorded a diversity that outnumbers other coral reefs of the
country.
• Examples include Acropara (Staghorn coral), Porites (boulder corals), Montipora (knob
Coral), Fungia (mushroom coral), Lobophyllia (brain coral) and Favia (star coral).

56. Marine National Park, in Gujarat

57. Marine National Park, in Gujarat
• The notified area includes 148.92 sq km of 42 islands in the Gulf and 309 sq km of intertidal
zone along its coast.
• Out of the notified areas, an area of 162.89 sq km is designated as National Park area while the
remaining is sanctuary land.
• The National Park area covers 37 islands.
• A total of 1,127 species of flora and fauna in the MPA.
• These include 200 species of molluscs, including oysters, three species of turtles and three
species of marine mammals: dolphins, whales, and the rare and endangered sea cow, dugong
dugon.
• A recent study recorded 144 different fish varieties in the MNPS areas and also 27 species of
commercially important prawn.
• The Gujarat’s State of Environment Report mentions 44 species of hard corals and 12 species of
soft corals.
• The age of the reefs varies from 5,240 years at Salaya to about 45,000 years at Okha.

58. Marine National Park, in Gujarat
• Mangrove species such as Rhizophora, Ceriops and Aegiceros, which are reported to have once
existed in the region, are now rare, while the species Bruguiera is extinct.

60. Ecosystem Stabilty
• Marine Protected Areas provide benefits to both fisheries and conservation.
• The main benefits that have been traditionally derived by fisheries from reserves
relate to stock enhancement and management, primarily through the key processes
of :
• spillover,
• larval export and
• the protection of critical habitat.
• However, responding to the need for more ecosystem-based management, some
fisheries now also recognise an additional broad range of benefits based on MPAs
that range from “no take” to “managed resource area” levels of protection.

61. Ecosystem Stabilty
For fisheries, protected areas generally can be considered to provide
four basic types of fishery benefits:
1. Support for stock management, including: protection of specific
life stages (larval nursery grounds) critical functions of an exploited
population (feeding grounds, spawning grounds) spillover of an
exploited species dispersion centre for larval recruitment of an exploited
species
2. Support for fishery stability
3. Ecological offsets—trade-off for ecosystem impacts
4. Improved socio-economic outcomes for local communities

63. Support for Fishery Stability
Protected areas are considered to be able to increase the stability in a fishery by:
1. Helping to maintain a predictable and secure level of yield from a fishery.
2. Reducing the total level of effort in a fishery that is either fully- or over-exploited,
3. Providing for spillover or larval export that can be considered to be securely linked to natural or broad scale
environmental changes.
4. Providing for unfished reference sites where important parameters in the fishery (such as natural mortality)
may be estimated free from the effects of fishing.
5. Acting as reference sites where the benchmark environmental conditions can be established so that the
impacts of external factors (such as coastal development and watershed management) affecting the fishery and
local habitats can be assessed and predicted.
6. Assisting with the issue of establishing a secure allocation of access to the fish resource (by forcing an explicit
assessment of the resource and its value in the process of protected area design), and finally
7. Providing a form of insurance against the effects of unexpected problems that may arise from the existing
system of stock management (after Ward et al. 2001).

64. Support for Fishery Stability
• Since many fisheries, including those considered to be well-managed and
sustainable, deplete populations to less than 20% of the unfished level, much of
the remainder of the world’s fisheries may also be improved through the use of
MPAs as fisheries management tools.
• The global adoption of MPAs in fisheries could enhance global yield by
between 10 and 80% (Pezzey et al. 2000).

65. Case Study:Tropical Subsistence Fisheries
– better socio-economic outcomes and improved stability
• In 1995 in St Lucia, West Indies, a
network of 4 reserves was created to cover
about 35% of available fishing grounds
(reef and offshore waters) to attempt to
restore a fishery that had no other form of
management and was severely over-
exploited.
• Research indicates that the reserves
increased the adjacent artisinal fishery
catches by 46% for large fish traps and
90% for small fish traps in 5 years, and
an overall increase in yield of the
fishery. (Roberts et al 2001).
• In Egypt where, in 1995, in collaboration with
local Bedouin and fishermen, five no-take
fisheries reserves were established within the
Nabq Natural Resource Protected Area, South
Sinai, in the Egyptian Red Sea.
• The abundance, size, structure and catch of
commercially targeted groupers, emperors, and
snappers were investigated before the
establishment of these reserves, then in 1997 and
again in 2000.
• By the years 1997 and 2000 it was observed that
the fish had shown a significant increase in
mean abundance in two of the reserves
displaying an increased abundance in fish
family as well as the inclusion of three more
species.
• Mean recorded catch per unit of fishing effort
within the adjacent fished areas increased by
about two-thirds during the 5 years.

66. Bottom Line:
• The establishment of the reserves appears to have played a key role in
maintaining the sustainability of the fishery.
• The involvement of local Bedouin and fishermen in the co-
management of fisheries resources was considered to be critical to
the success of this initiative (Galal et al. 2002).

68. Population Viability Analysis
• The term “population viability analysis” refers to the use of quantitative methods to predict the likely future status
of a population or collection of populations of conservation concern.
• PVA is now commonly used as though it signified a single method or analytical tool, in fact PVAs range widely
both in methods and applications.
Example- I
• An influential PVA (Crouse et al. 1987) used a more complex size structured model to assess the status of
loggerhead sea turtles and to ask whether protecting nestlings on beaches or preventing the death of older
turtles in fishing trawls would have a greater effect on enhancing population recovery.
• This single PVA played a critical role in supporting legislation to reduce fishing mortality of turtles (Crowder et
al. 1994).
Example- II
• To evaluate the recovery options for chinook salmon in the Tuolumne River, an age-based model was
developed to conduct a population viability analysis (PVA). A flow-dependent spawner-recruitment relationship
from the recruitment model was developed .
• Its shape depended on the flow regime, suggesting that such relationships are not fixed properties of species,
but depend on environmental conditions.
• The model suggested that recovery, in the absence of straying, would be enhanced most by significantly
reducing ocean harvest, followed by reduced diversion of water from the river.

69. Population Viability Analysis
• Population Viability Analysis (PVA) is a quantitative tool used in
conservation biology to assess the probability of a population's survival
over a specified time frame.
• It incorporates various factors such as
• demographic data,
• environmental conditions, and
• threats
• to determine the population's viability and potential risks of extinction.
• PVAs are particularly valuable for understanding and managing populations
in marine ecosystems, where many species face significant conservation
challenges.

70. Types of PVAs commonly used in marine
conservation:
1. Deterministic Models:
I. Use mathematical equations to predict population dynamics over time.
II. These models assume constant environmental conditions and fixed parameter values.
• An example in the marine ecosystem context would be estimating the population viability of
a marine mammal species like the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis).
• The model would consider factors such as birth rates, mortality rates, and available habitat
to assess the population's long-term survival.
2. Stochastic Models:
I. Incorporate random variations in environmental conditions and demographic processes
to account for uncertainty.
II. These models use computer simulations and probability distributions to generate
multiple scenarios of population growth or decline.
• For instance, to analyze the viability of a specific coral reef species, considering factors
like coral bleaching events, storm frequency, and disease outbreaks that can influence the
population's future.

71. Types of PVAs commonly used in marine
conservation:
3. Metapopulation Models:
I. Focus on interconnected populations occupying fragmented habitats.
II. In marine ecosystems, this approach can be applied to species that have multiple
subpopulations distributed across different locations.
• For example, a metapopulation PVA might evaluate the viability of a sea turtle species that
nests in various coastal areas but depends on specific foraging grounds and migratory
routes.
4. Individual-Based Models:
I. Simulate population dynamics at the individual level, allowing for greater flexibility and
realism.
II. These models consider individual variation in traits and behavior, interactions between
individuals, and spatial structure.
• An example could be a PVA for a commercially exploited fish species such as Atlantic cod
(Gadus morhua).
• The model would account for individual growth rates, reproduction, fishing pressure, and
spatial distribution to estimate the species' persistence.

72. Bottomline:
PVAs are valuable tools for informing conservation decisions and
prioritizing management actions to safeguard marine populations and
ecosystems in the face of various threats and challenges.

73. Conclusion
• Modern concepts of fishery sustainability incorporate aspects of ecosystem protection, and
fisheries are increasingly being required to demonstrate their lack of impacts in marine systems in
order to be permitted to continue to fish.
• In other words, fisheries are being expected to take a more active part in ecosystem management
issues, many of which may be the primary responsibility of other agencies or other sectors.
• Where it is difficult to demonstrate that fishing can be conducted with only minimal impact on
non-target organisms and habitats, no-take MPAs offer fisheries managers an opportunity to work
in partnership with other agencies, industry organisations and community groups to provide for the
conservation of species and habitats that may otherwise be affected by fishing.
• No-take MPAs provide a fishery with an efficient tool to provide for protecting non-target species
and habitats, and if the no-take areas are designed correctly, they could simultaneously provide
support to the target species and possibly the fishery.
• By protecting non-target species and habitats from the effects of fishing, fisheries can rightly claim
to be supporting conservation objectives for the region, and be able to appropriately reject claims
of high levels of environmental damage by a fishery.

74. Conclusion
• This situation also could assist a fishery to avoid very expensive and long term research programs
designed to fully evaluate environmental impacts within fishing grounds, provided that non-target
species and habitats are reasonably represented in no-take areas.
• Where dual objectives were being achieved, a fishery could appropriately claim to be delivering
the ‘double payoff’, where both conservation and fishing achieve benefits (Sanchirico & Wilen
2001).

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