This document discusses theories of arousal and its relationship to performance. It defines arousal and activation, and lists effects of arousal such as increased heart rate and sweating. It describes four theories of arousal: drive theory, inverted U theory, catastrophe theory, and the zone of optimal functioning. The inverted U theory proposes that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point, after which further increases in arousal hurt performance. Being in the zone is described as a state of confidence, focus, control and flow. Strategies for achieving the zone include imagery and controlling anxiety levels.

1. Management of Arousal
Definitions, theories, relationship
between arousal and performance,
arousal and personality, measurement of
arousal, methods of controlling arousal

2. Lesson Objectives
• Be able to define arousal and activation
• Be able to list effects of arousal
• Be able to name 4 theories of arousal
• Be able to explain at least 2 theories of
arousal
• Be able to describe characteristics of being in
the Zone
• Be able to name strategies for getting in to
the zone

3. Definitions of Arousal
•Sense of alertness
and anticipation which
prepares the body for
actions

4. Arousal and Activation
• Activation is the degree of physiological
alertness caused by increased arousal
which can occur in both body and mind
• A degree of activation is needed for
everyday activity but sport may place
increased demands on a player which
requires increased activation.

5. Effects of arousal
• (Similar to what we have discussed for anxiety)
• Arousal is measure by the reticular activating
system in the brain stem – responsible for
organising behaviour
• Increased arousal can cause:
– In the mind - confusion, irrational thoughts, lack of
concentration, faster information processing and
increased attention, (High arousal - constant need to
urinate!)
– In the body – increased HR, BP and sweating
• Behaviour change may include shaking, pacing
and restlessness

6. Effects of arousal
• Not always negative!
• Negative effects = stress/anxiety
• Positive effects = eustress –
– lead to increased motivation and energy and
may enhance performance to an optimum
level
– Increased attention and better ‘cueing’ may
result
– Perception of stressors is the key

7. Theories on Arousal

8. Drive Theory (Hull)
Key message - Relationship between
arousal and performance is linear.
• P = f(D x H)
• D= drive, H= habit
• An increase in arousal is
proportional to an increase in
performance quality
• NB – the quality of performance
dependant on how well the skill
is learned

9. Drive Theory (Hull)
• Learned behaviours tend to be –
DOMINANT RESPONSES
• Dominant response – behaviour
most likely to be reproduced
under pressure
• Hull suggested arousal increases
in competitive situation or
assessment situation
• Therefore increased arousal in
these situations increased
likelihood of dominant response

10. Drive Theory
Beginner
• High arousal not
beneficial to a beginner
as dominant response is
not as well learned and
may have errors
• Beginner performs and
learns more effectively at
low levels of arousal
Expert
• High arousal beneficial to
an expert as dominant
response correct
Drive Theory now not considered
a good explanation of the
relationship between arousal and
performance. (As the drop
off/failure to improve further
performance can be seen in elite
athletes)

11. Inverted U Theory (Yerkes and Dodson)
• Arousal causes an increase in performance but only up
to a point after which further increases in arousal cause
a deterioration in performance.
• There is an optimum level of arousal at moderate levels
• Optimum level can vary depending on a number of
factors

12. Inverted U Theory (Yerkes and Dodson)
• Gross skills & simple skills– require higher levels of arousal
(because less control is needed – need abilities such as strength
and speed)
• Fine skills & Complex skills – requires lower levels of arousal as
requires cognitive abilities and finer control
• Some skills difficult to classify e.g. golf swing which involves
strength and complexity

13. Inverted U Theory (Yerkes and Dodson)
• Experts can operate best at high arousal levels because
they can perform on auto pilot.
• Beginners need only low arousal levels because they
are using lots of cognitive attention and a further
increase in arousal would cause confusion

14. Inverted U - Personality
Introverts
• Quickly experience over
arousal
• The RAS measures
adrenaline in the brain
stem and suggest that
introverts need only a
slight activation to
experience the effects of
over arousal
Extrovert
• Can more easily cope
with the pressure of a
crowd for example

15. Catastrophe Theory (Fazey & Hardy)
• Arousal improves
performance up to a point
• Rather than a gradual
deterioration – sudden
dramatic collapse
• Collapse due to a
combination of somatic and
cognitive effects
• Once catastrophe has
occurred – athlete needs to
relax below the point of
arousal at which
catastrophe occurred

16. Examples
• Jean Van de Velde was on the 18th
hole leading the field of golfers with
a 6 shot deficit during the 1999
Open at Carnoustie. His drive
landed him in the rough but a
simple shot back onto the fairway
would have enabled Jean to regain
momentum…it would have!
However, Jean chose an
interesting approach, which took
him from rough to rough, from
rough to water and from water to
bunker. In the mean time, his
opponent played an astonishing
chip in to leave a 1 shot difference.
Jean needed to emulate his
opponent but you’ve guessed
it…he couldn’t. Jean putted in to
level the match with a four-way
• Roberto Baggio, Italy’s
outstanding player of the
1994 FIFA World Cup steps
up to take the penalty to
even the scores. He looks
cool from the outside. He
places the ball on the
penalty spot and takes a 10
meter run up. He looks up
once and beings his run. He
side foots the ball leaning
backwards and sends the
ball over the goal into the
crowd. Brazil win the World
Cup.

17. Relationship between somatic and
cognitive anxiety
• According to this theory – it
is beneficial to have a level
of cognitive anxiety
produced by high arousal
levels.
• As long as somatic levels of
anxiety remain low
• When both become high is
when catastrophe occurs
• Normally somatic anxiety
peaks just before the event
and lowers once the
sporting event begins –
sometimes it doesn’t!

18. The Zone of Optimum Functioning
(Hanin)
• Similar to Inverted U theory in that there is an optimum point
of arousal.
• It can be different for each athlete and athletes can use all
their experience and techniques (e.g. imagery) to reach this
optimum

19. Zone of Optimal Functioning
Differences in Zones
• Fine and complex tasks
may be lower
• Individuals may be lower
than team game athletes
Differs from inverted U
in….
• Optimal level does not
always occur in the midpoint
• Optimal level of anxiety is
not a point but a bandwidth
and there will be a specific
zone for an athlete
• Anxiety and arousal control
should be mixed with
emotional control to find the
zone

20. Zone of Optimum functioning
Features of the Zone
• Confidence – No fear
• Automatic – auto pilot
• In control – want you want will
happened
• Focused – Totally absorbed
• Fun – You enjoy the flow
• Effortless – things go smoothly
• Relaxed – Energised yet calm
Examples
• Sally Gunnell
• Sam Torence

21. Exam Questions

22. Lesson Objectives
• Be able to define arousal and activation
• Be able to list effects of arousal
• Be able to name 4 theories of arousal
• Be able to explain at least 2 theories of
arousal
• Be able to describe characteristics of being in
the Zone
• Be able to name strategies for getting in to
the zone