The document discusses macromolecules, specifically carbohydrates. It provides details on the four main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate and include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds, such as sucrose and lactose. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage and providing structural components in cells.

1. GURUGRAM
UNIVERSITY
M.Sc Neuroscience

2. BIOCHEMISTRY
Topic :Macromolecules
Submitted by :- Sachin
M.Sc. Neuroscience

3. MACROMOLECULES
● Macromolecule : a molecule containing a very large number of atoms, such as a
protein, nucleic acid, or carbohydraets.
● polymers of smaller molecules called monomers.
a monomer is a molecule that can react together with other monomer molecules
to form a larger polymer chain or three-dimensional network in a process called
polymerization.

4. ● Macromolecules in living things are grouped based on their chemical compositions
Four Main Macromolecules are:
Lipids
02
Carbohydrates
01
Proteins
03
Nucleic acid
04

5. CARBOHYDRATES
● Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
● The general empirical structure for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n.
● It also Present In blood, food, milk .
● Carbohydrates play primary role in energy metabolism .
● E.g. Glucose is chief fuel molecule in all tissue and organs .
● They are organic compounds organized in the form of aldehydes or ketones with
multiple hydroxyl groups coming off the carbon chain.
● The building blocks of all carbohydrates are simple sugars called monosaccharides.
● A monosaccharide can be a polyhydroxy aldehyde (aldose) or a polyhydroxy
ketone (ketose).

6. TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Monosaccharides
● Classified based on the no. Of carbon atoms
● Based on functional groups
 Oligosaccharides
● 1 disaccharides 2 trisaccharide's 3 tetra saccharides 4.Penta saccharides
 Polysaccharides
Homo polysaccharide , Hetero polysaccharide

7. 1. MONOSACCHARIDES
● This is the smallest possible sugar unit.
● Simplest form consisting 3 to 9 carbon atom.
● Not hydrolysis.
● It consist single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone.
 Sub types
 Based on no. Of carbon atoms
 Based on functional groups

8. BASED ON FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
● Pentose monosaccharides have great biological importance , which constitute part
of nucleic acid ( RNA, DNA).
● D and L Isomerism
● In Mammals most of monosaccharides are D sugar.
● Natural occurring L form sugar. E.g L Fucose found in glycoprotein.
● They are reducing sugar.
● Benedict test done for reducing sugar.
● They are straight or ring or cyclic form.

9. SOME COMMON MONOSACCHARIDES
1. Glucose-It is aldohexose , white crystalline Solid, soluble in H2o.
Major Source to energy for cell.
2. Galactose
 It is aldohexose
 Milk sugar
 It also present some glycoprotein and glycolipid .
3.Fructose
 Occur naturally in fruits, honey .
 Most soluble , sweetest all of sugar.

10. 2. DISACCHARIDES
● Two monosaccharide units joined together via glycosidic linkage
- three major disaccharides
● Maltose = Glucose +Glucose
● Sucrose = Glucose + fructose
● Lactose = Glucose + galactose.

11. 3. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
● Two to 10 monosaccharides joined together via - glycosidic bonds
● Sweet taste , soluble in water.
● Formula. Cn(H2O)n-1
● Some oligosaccharides found combination with protein called glycoprotein.
e.g raffinose ---- fructose + galactose + Glucose .
e.g. stachyose---- fructose + 2galactose + Glucose .

12. 4.POLYSACCHARIDES
● Ten or more monosccharide joined together glycosidic bonds.
● Hydrolysis in oligosaccharides and monosaccharides
● Not sweet in taste . non sugar .
● Linear and branching polymer .
● Act as food stores in plants and animals.
● They also play a structural role in the plant cell wall and the tough outer skeleton
of insects.
● Polysaccharides are a chain of two or more monosaccharides . Chain may be
A. Branched- The molecule looks like a tree with branches and twigs.
B. Unbranched – where the molecule is straight line.
Three important polysaccharides
1. Glycogen
2. Starches.
3. Cellulose

15. FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
● Carbohydrate are the main source of energy in the body.
● Brain cells and RBCs are almost wholly dependent on carbohydrates as the energy
source.
● Energy production from carbohydrates will be 4 kcal/g.
● Storage form of energy (starch and glycogen).
● Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat.

16. LIPIDS
● Lipids are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water and soluble
in non-polar organic solvents such as ether, benzene and chloroform.
● They naturally occur in most plants, animals, microorganisms and are used as cell membrane
components, energy storage molecules, insulation, and hormones.
● Composed of: Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen atoms (CHO)
● Monomer: Fatty Acids & Glycerol
● Polymer: Fats, Oils, Waxes

17. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Based on the chemical nature, lipids are classified as :
1. Simple lipid
2. Complex or compound lipid
3. Derived lipids

18. 1.SIMPLE LIPID
● These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols. Depending on the type of
alcohols these are sub classified as:
1.Neutral fats or Triacylglycerol or Triglycerides: These are esters of fatty acids with
alcohol glycerol, for example, tripalmitin. Because they are uncharged, they are
termed neutral fat. The fat we eat are mostly triglycerides.
2.Waxes: These are esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric
long chain alcohols. These compounds have no importance as far as human
metabolism is concerned. But they are widespread in nature. They are protective
coatings on the leaves, stem and fruits of plants.

19. SIMPLE LIPIDS

20. 2.COMPLEX LIPIDS
● These are esters of fatty acids, with alcohol containing additional (prosthetic) groups. These
are sub-classified according to the type of prosthetic group present in the lipid as follows:
● Phospholipids
● Glycolipids
● Lipoproteins
1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS: These are lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and alcohol, a phosphoric
acid as nitrogenous base .
Based on the types of alcohol present they are again divided into
● Glycerophospholipids: Contain Glycerol as alcohol. Eg: lecithin &cephalin
● Sphingophospholipids Contain sphingosine as alcohol. Eg: sphingomyelin
2.GLYCOLIPIDS:Fatty acids + alcohol+ carbohydrate as nitrogenous base. They contain sphingosine
as alcohol and hence also known as GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS. Eg: Cerebrosides and Gangliosides..
3.LIPOPROTEINS:Macromolecular complexes of lipids with proteins. Eg: LDL, VLDL, Chylomicrons,
HDL ,etc

21. Two fatty acids Tails (long chains of hydrogen and
carbon molecule).
Glycerol (head) molecule is also attached to a
phosphate group.
Phosphate can be attached to an alcohol and another
group.
Phospholipids are amphipathic in nature.

22. DERIVED LIPIDS
• These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and ketone
bodies, hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins, and hormones.
• Because they are uncharged, acylglycerols (glycerides), cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters
are termed neutral lipids.
• These compounds are produced by the hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids.
STEROIDS
● No contain fatty acids.
● Made up of 4 fused ring .
● Help in vitamin D production.
● Help in cell membrane support.
● Hormones production- cholesterol
TERPENES – components of essential oil.

23. FATTY ACIDS
● Fatty acids have a long hydrocarbon chain with a terminal carboxylic acid group.
Most fatty acids found in biology have an even number of carbon atoms arranged
in an un-branched chain. Chain length usually ranges from 14-24 carbon atom
● A saturated fatty acid has all of the carbon atoms in its chain saturated with
hydrogen atoms. This gives the general formula CH2(CH2)nCOOH, where n is an
even number.
● Mono-unsaturated fatty acids have one double bond in their structure, while
polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more double bonds.
● Function of Fatty Acids
• Fatty acids have three major physiological functions:
• Fatty acids serve as major fuel for most cells.
• They serve as building blocks of phospholipids and glycolipids.
• Fatty acids derivatives serve as hormones, e.g. prostaglandins and intracellular
messenger like phosphatidylinositol.

24. SATURATED AND UNSATURATED
● Are straight chains
● Occur in most animals fat
● Single bond are present
● Have higher melting point then
unsaturated fatty acids
● Cannot take up more hydrogen
● Ex. Oleic acid
● Have a bend at the double bond
● Occur in most plant fats
● Double ,triple bond are present
● Have lower melting point then
saturated fatty acids
● Can take up more hydrogen
● Ex .linoleic acid

26. FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
● Energy Storage
● Making Biological Membranes
● Insulation
● Protection – e.g. protecting plant leaves from drying up.
● Acting as hormones
● Act as the structural component of the body and provide the
hydrophobic barrier that permits partitioning of the aqueous contents
of the cell and subcellular structures.
● Lipids are major sources of energy in animals and high lipid-
containing seeds.

27. 3.PROTEINS
● Proteins are the most abundant biological macromolecules, occurring in all cells.
● Composed of: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen Atoms (C,H,O,N)
● Monomer: Amino Acids
● Polymer: Polypeptide
● Biochemists have distinguished several levels of structural organizationof proteins.
They are-
1.Primary
2.Secondary
3.Tertiary
4.Quanternary

28. AMINO ACIDS
 Amino acids are building
blocks of proteins
 Each amino acid include
amino group, carboxyl
group, side chain, central
carbon atom, & a hydrogen
atom
 Amino acid on the basis of
side chain
hydrophobic
hydrophilic
charged amino acid
categories
 essential amino acid
 non-essential amino acid
 semi-essential amino acid

29. LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
1. Primary Structure
● Primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids held together by peptide
bonds in its peptide chain. The peptide bonds form the backbone and side chains of
amino acids residues project outside the peptide backbone.
● N-terminal (Left)
● C-terminal
● Biosynthesis of the protein also start from the amino terminal end.

30. ● Generally the polypeptide chains are linear. However branching points in the chain
may be produced by interchain di-sulphide bridges.
● Di-sulphide bond between different polypeptide chains in the same protein
(interchain) or protein of the same polypeptide chain (intrachain) are also part of
the primary structure

31. 2. Secondary Structure
● It is called “α” because it was the first structure elucidated by Pauling and Corey.
● The folding of polypeptide chains into regular or ordered structure by repetitive hydrogen
between the peptide NH and CO of amino acids is called secondary structure.
● The secondary structure involves α-helices, β-sheets.
1. α-Helix-The helix is rod like structure. The helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the NH
and CO groups of the same chain.
CO group of each amino acid is hydrogen bonded to the –NH of the amino acid that is situated four
residues ahead in the linear sequence.
Formation of hydrogen bond in α-Helix

32. β-Sheet
● The β- structure has the amino acids in an extended conformation.
● It is composed of two or more polypeptide chain called β-strands.
Two types of β- sheets exist parallel and anti-parallel.
● In the parallel sheet structure, adjacent chains aligned in the same direction with
respect to N-terminal and C-terminal residues.
● In the anti-parallel sheet structure, the alignments are in the opposite direction.

33. 3. Tertiary Structure
● The overall three-dimensional arrangement of all atoms in protein is referred to as the proteins
tertiary structure.
● The polypeptide chain with its secondary structure is further folded and twisted about itself
forming three-dimensional structure, how secondary features-helices, sheets, bends, turn, and
loops assemble.
● Amino acids that are far a part in the polypeptide sequence and are in different types of
secondary structure may interact within the completely folded structure of a protein.
● The three-dimensional folded compact and biologically active conformation of a protein is
referred to as it tertiary structure.

34. 4. Quaternary Structure of Protein
● Many protein consist of a single polypeptide chain and are called monomeric proteins.
● Proteins that have more than one polypeptide chain are called polymeric.
● The quaternary structure is the combination of two or more tertiary units
● In polymeric proteins polypeptide chains may be structurally identical or totally different.
● The arrangement of these polypeptide subunits in three-dimensional complexes is called the
quaternary structure of the protein

35. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Based on the molecular shape, proteins can be classified into two types.
1. FIBROUS PROTEINS:
● When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and
disulfide bonds, then the fiber-like structure is formed.
● Such proteins are generally insoluble in water.
● Example – keratin and myosin, etc.
2. GLOBULAR PROTEINS:
● This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a
spherical shape.
● Water soluble
● Example – Insulin and albumins are common examples of globular proteins.

36. FUNCTION OF PROTEIN
● Help in digestion of food by catabolizing nutrients into monomeric units
● Carry substances in the blood or lymph throughout the body
● Construct different structures, like the cytoskeleton
● Coordinate the activity of different body systems
● Protect the body from foreign pathogens
● Effect muscle contraction
● Provide nourishment in early development of the embryo and the seedling

37. NUCLEIC ACID
● Nucleic acid is a naturally occurring chemical molecule that can be broken down to
produce phosphoric acid, sugars, and an organic base combination (purines and
pyrimidines).
● Located in nuclei of cell
● Elemental composition – Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
● Is very stable component and inherit Genetic information.
● Monomer: Nucleotides
● Polymer: Nucleic Acids
● Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two major types
of nucleic acids.

38. BONDS IN NUCLEIC ACID
1. PHOSPHODIESTER BOND- The nucleotides are all oriented in same direction . The
phosphate group joins 3rd Carbon of one sugar to the 5th Carbon of next in line by
Condensation Reaction.
2. HYDROGEN BOND- Connects two strands of DNA. Responsible for complementary base
pair formation .
3.GLYCOSIDIC BOND-Bond that hold together Phosphorus, Sugar and Nitrogen. It form
bond between 1st carbon atom in Sugar and 9th Nitrogen atom in Nitrogenous base .

40. 1.DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
● Every living organism contain DNA.
● Discovered in 1960 by FRANKILIN,WATSON AND CRICK.
● It contain deoxyribose sugar.
● DNA contain the bases adenine(A),cytosine(C),guanine(G),thymine(T).
● Both strands of double stranded DNA are complementary in nature, store the
same biological information.
● Base pairing: A=T; C≡G
● Human DNA contain 3 million deoxyribonucleotide residue and contain 25,000
genes.
● Genes are stretch of DNA that carries codes of protein production.
● Two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simple
monomeric unit called nucleotides.

41. Basically there are 3 types of DNA

42. FUNCTION OF DNA
● It is a genetic material therefore responsible for carrying all the hereditary
information.
● Control all the metabolic reaction of the cell.
● Replicates itself so each new cell has a complete identical copy.
● Control the activities of a cell by determining which protein are produced.
● Undergo occasional mutations which accounts for the variety of living things on
earth.

43. 2.RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
● Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule.
● It contain ribose sugar
● RNA contain the bases adenine(A),cytosine(C),guanine(G),uracil(U).
● Base pairing: A=U; C≡G
● Essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression
of genes
● Found both inside and outside the nucleus.
● Primarily concerned with the synthesis of protein.

46. FUNCTION OF NUCLEIC ACID
● Nucleic acids are responsible for the transmission of inherent
characters from parent to offspring.
● They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body
● DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to
determine paternity. It is also used for the identification of
criminals.
● It has also played a major role in studies regarding biological
evolution and genetics.

47. THANK YOU!