An Affiliation of DHEA Furthermore, DHEAs with Undesirable Distress Between S...inventionjournals
Posttraumatic stress Disorder(PTSD) is related with expanded smoking initiation, upkeep Furthermore, relapse. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) Furthermore, DHEA sulfate (DHEAS) are neurosteroids that have been related with mood measures as well as smoking status, Furthermore, nicotine is related with expanded DHEA Furthermore, DHEAS levels. Given the difficulties with mood experienced by smokers with PTSD, the purpose of the current study was to assess the affiliation between negative influence Furthermore, uneasiness affectability with DHEA Furthermore, DHEAS levels. Ninety-six smokers with Furthermore, without PTSD provided blood tests for neurosteroid analyses, Furthermore, completed self-report measures of uneasiness affectability Furthermore, electronic journal evaluations of negative affect. As expected, PTSD smokers reported higher levels of uneasiness affectability (F[1,94]=20.67, fractional η2= 0.18, p<.0001) Furthermore, negative influence (F[1,91]=7.98, fractional η2= .08, p=.006). After bookkeeping for age Furthermore, gender, DHEAS was essentially conversely related with both uneasiness affectability (F[3,92]=6.97, fractional η2= 0.07, p=.01) Furthermore, negative influence (F[3,87]=10.52, fractional η2= 0.11, p=.002) over groups. Impact sizes indicated that these impacts are moderate to high. No noteworthy communications of determination Furthermore, DHEA(S) levels with mood measures were detected. Given that nicotine is known to elevate DHEA(S) levels, these results recommend that DHEAS may serve as a biomarker of the affiliation between moodFurthermore, nicotine among smokers. Implications for the results include 1) the use of DHEAS estimation over time Furthermore, over stopped attempts; Furthermore, 2) the potential for careful use of DHEA supplementation to encourage restraint amid smoking cessation.
An Affiliation of DHEA Furthermore, DHEAs with Undesirable Distress Between S...inventionjournals
Posttraumatic stress Disorder(PTSD) is related with expanded smoking initiation, upkeep Furthermore, relapse. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) Furthermore, DHEA sulfate (DHEAS) are neurosteroids that have been related with mood measures as well as smoking status, Furthermore, nicotine is related with expanded DHEA Furthermore, DHEAS levels. Given the difficulties with mood experienced by smokers with PTSD, the purpose of the current study was to assess the affiliation between negative influence Furthermore, uneasiness affectability with DHEA Furthermore, DHEAS levels. Ninety-six smokers with Furthermore, without PTSD provided blood tests for neurosteroid analyses, Furthermore, completed self-report measures of uneasiness affectability Furthermore, electronic journal evaluations of negative affect. As expected, PTSD smokers reported higher levels of uneasiness affectability (F[1,94]=20.67, fractional η2= 0.18, p<.0001) Furthermore, negative influence (F[1,91]=7.98, fractional η2= .08, p=.006). After bookkeeping for age Furthermore, gender, DHEAS was essentially conversely related with both uneasiness affectability (F[3,92]=6.97, fractional η2= 0.07, p=.01) Furthermore, negative influence (F[3,87]=10.52, fractional η2= 0.11, p=.002) over groups. Impact sizes indicated that these impacts are moderate to high. No noteworthy communications of determination Furthermore, DHEA(S) levels with mood measures were detected. Given that nicotine is known to elevate DHEA(S) levels, these results recommend that DHEAS may serve as a biomarker of the affiliation between moodFurthermore, nicotine among smokers. Implications for the results include 1) the use of DHEAS estimation over time Furthermore, over stopped attempts; Furthermore, 2) the potential for careful use of DHEA supplementation to encourage restraint amid smoking cessation.
“Pathological Motivations for Exercise and Eating Disorder Specific Health-Re...pmilano
Exercise, as we all know, can improve your health, but if you have an eating disorder and also exercise compulsively to help manage your weight, you may find your overall quality of life going down even further.
Those are some of the findings of research by JU Professor of Kinesiology Heather Hausenblas and colleagues in a study titled “Pathological Motivations for Exercise and Eating Disorder Specific Health-Related Quality of Life” published in the April 2014 issue of the International Journal of Eating Disorders.
SparksDuncan2013: Outside the Black Box: Re-assessing Pediatric Antidepressan...Barry Duncan
Sparks, J., & Duncan, B. (2013). Outside the black box: Re-assessing pediatric antidepressant prescription. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 240-256.
Objective: The purpose of this review is to assess whether evidence supports a favorable risk/benefit profile for pediatric antidepressant use and reconsideration of the black box. Method: The review examines studies post-black box purporting to show declines in pediatric antidepressant use and rising youth suicide, summarizes evidence for efficacy and safety of pediatric antidepressants, and discusses irregularities in recent meta-analyses of fluoxetine for youth. Results: Pediatric antidepressant prescription did not significantly decline post-black box and youth suicide has risen only in recent years. Recent meta-analyses fail to undermine evidence that antidepressants are associated with increased risk of suicidality in youth. Conclusions: First line prescription of antidepressants for youth is not advisable. The black box and international warnings on pediatric use of antidepressants are warranted. Wider availability of psychosocial options for depressed youth is recommended.
PREVAILENCE OF MIGRIANE IN A LOW INCOME COMMUNITY OF KARACHIJing Zang
Migraine is the most common problem affecting large population, with prevalence frequency 10-12 %. This study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of migraine in a low income community in Karachi from June-Oct, 2013. Three hundred and seven participants were involved in this study. For this purpose cross-sectional community based questionnaire was designed in accordance with the diagnostic criteria given by International Headache Society. Data collection was carried out by personal visit to patients and through clinics. It was observed that females (65.5%) are more affected from migraine then male. 32.9% housewives reported that they are suffering from migraine. This medical problem is common among youngsters (38.1%) than old citizens. Employees working in different organizations (39.7%), were found to be mostly affected from migraine then self employed persons. Majority of the migraine patients (41%) reported that they are suffering from common symptoms including: photophobia, phonophobia, nausea, vomiting etc. Dietary habits of individuals were found to be closely associated with migraine such as use of caffeine, chocolate are prominent; and their use is common among 75% patients cumulatively. It was evaluated that certain disease conditions i.e. stress (33.6%), depression (22.1%) and anxiety (18.9%) are more common among sufferers of migraine.
Journal Club: Genetic Predisposition to Schizophrenia Associated with Increas...Ashutosh Ratnam
Here's a Journal Club Presentation I made on the article 'Genetic Predisposition to Schizophrenia Associated with Increased Use of Cannabis' which appeared in the Nov 14 issue of Molecular Psychiatry. It explored the possibility of whether people with high genetic risk scores for Schizophrenia somehow had a propensity for cannabis, establishing a biological basis for 'reverse causality'.
“Pathological Motivations for Exercise and Eating Disorder Specific Health-Re...pmilano
Exercise, as we all know, can improve your health, but if you have an eating disorder and also exercise compulsively to help manage your weight, you may find your overall quality of life going down even further.
Those are some of the findings of research by JU Professor of Kinesiology Heather Hausenblas and colleagues in a study titled “Pathological Motivations for Exercise and Eating Disorder Specific Health-Related Quality of Life” published in the April 2014 issue of the International Journal of Eating Disorders.
SparksDuncan2013: Outside the Black Box: Re-assessing Pediatric Antidepressan...Barry Duncan
Sparks, J., & Duncan, B. (2013). Outside the black box: Re-assessing pediatric antidepressant prescription. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 240-256.
Objective: The purpose of this review is to assess whether evidence supports a favorable risk/benefit profile for pediatric antidepressant use and reconsideration of the black box. Method: The review examines studies post-black box purporting to show declines in pediatric antidepressant use and rising youth suicide, summarizes evidence for efficacy and safety of pediatric antidepressants, and discusses irregularities in recent meta-analyses of fluoxetine for youth. Results: Pediatric antidepressant prescription did not significantly decline post-black box and youth suicide has risen only in recent years. Recent meta-analyses fail to undermine evidence that antidepressants are associated with increased risk of suicidality in youth. Conclusions: First line prescription of antidepressants for youth is not advisable. The black box and international warnings on pediatric use of antidepressants are warranted. Wider availability of psychosocial options for depressed youth is recommended.
PREVAILENCE OF MIGRIANE IN A LOW INCOME COMMUNITY OF KARACHIJing Zang
Migraine is the most common problem affecting large population, with prevalence frequency 10-12 %. This study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of migraine in a low income community in Karachi from June-Oct, 2013. Three hundred and seven participants were involved in this study. For this purpose cross-sectional community based questionnaire was designed in accordance with the diagnostic criteria given by International Headache Society. Data collection was carried out by personal visit to patients and through clinics. It was observed that females (65.5%) are more affected from migraine then male. 32.9% housewives reported that they are suffering from migraine. This medical problem is common among youngsters (38.1%) than old citizens. Employees working in different organizations (39.7%), were found to be mostly affected from migraine then self employed persons. Majority of the migraine patients (41%) reported that they are suffering from common symptoms including: photophobia, phonophobia, nausea, vomiting etc. Dietary habits of individuals were found to be closely associated with migraine such as use of caffeine, chocolate are prominent; and their use is common among 75% patients cumulatively. It was evaluated that certain disease conditions i.e. stress (33.6%), depression (22.1%) and anxiety (18.9%) are more common among sufferers of migraine.
Journal Club: Genetic Predisposition to Schizophrenia Associated with Increas...Ashutosh Ratnam
Here's a Journal Club Presentation I made on the article 'Genetic Predisposition to Schizophrenia Associated with Increased Use of Cannabis' which appeared in the Nov 14 issue of Molecular Psychiatry. It explored the possibility of whether people with high genetic risk scores for Schizophrenia somehow had a propensity for cannabis, establishing a biological basis for 'reverse causality'.
Stress Management 101 for College Students by Saint Francis of Assisi CollegeJhon Ray Magno
Feeling under pressure is a normal occurrence for a student especially those who are in college. These are stressful moments that tend to either agitate or challenge an individual. Stress in some way can turn out to have positive impact depending on how you handle it. In this presentation, you will learn how to use your stressors to your advantage.
Presented by: www.saintfrancis.edu.ph
this ppt is made on Stress and stress management. this ppt tells us the reasons of stress in students life and how to overcome stress. this ppt is made for educational purpose only.
The Impact of Trying Electronic Cigarettes on CigaretteSmoki.docxrtodd33
The Impact of Trying Electronic Cigarettes on Cigarette
Smoking by College Students: A Prospective Analysis
Erin L. Sutfin, PhD, Beth A. Reboussin, PhD, Beata Debinski, MHS, Kimberly G. Wagoner, DrPH, MPH, John Spangler, MD, MPH, and Mark Wolfson, PhD
There has been considerable growth in the
availability, marketing, sales, and use of elec-
tronic nicotine delivery systems, often referred
to as “e-cigarettes,” over the past several years.
Product sales in the United States have doubled
every year since 2008, and securities analysts
estimate the e-cigarette market is now approx-
imately a $2.5 billion industry.1 E-cigarette use
has rapidly increased among adolescents and
adults. From 2011 to 2012, rates of ever using
e-cigarettes among US middle and high school
students doubled from 3.3% to 6.8%.2 Similar
increases have been seen among US adults.3,4
Recent data suggest that e-cigarette use is
highest among young adults. Data from the
2012---2013 National Adult Tobacco Survey
show that young adults aged18 to 24 years had
a higher prevalence of e-cigarette use (8.3%)
than did the adult population as a whole
(4.2%).5 Similarly, with data from dual frame
surveys of national probability samples of
adults, McMillen et al. found that current
e-cigarette use in 2013 by young adults aged18
to 24 years (14.2%) was higher than was that
among adults aged 25 to 44 years (8.6%), 45
to 65 years (5.5%), and older than 65 years
(1.2%).4
Available data on e-cigarette use by college
students are limited, with most coming from
single-state or individual campus studies.6---9
College students are an important group to
study for several reasons. First, young adult-
hood is a period of many life transitions and
accompanying stress.10 The tobacco industry is
well aware of this vulnerable period and
recognizes it as a promising period for tobacco
use initiation and transition to addiction.11
Thus, college students are a target market for
the tobacco industry.11,12 College students are
often early adopters of novel products and
have historically been at the forefront of
societal changes in substance use that later
materialize in the general population.13 In
a cross-sectional study of college students in
North Carolina in 2009, Sutfin et al.6 found
that college students’ lifetime prevalence of
e-cigarette use was 4.9%, which was higher
than were rates of use among other adults at
the time,14,15 suggesting that college students
were early adopters of e-cigarettes.6
Additionally, there was an association be-
tween e-cigarette use and sensation seeking in
bivariate, but not multivariable, models. How-
ever, membership in Greek letter organizations
was associated with e-cigarette use in multi-
variable models. These data suggest that col-
lege students may be drawn to e-cigarettes
owing, at least in part, to their novelty. Finally,
college students are an important group to
study because they have a unique pattern of
cigarette smoking that is often marked by so.
Moderate alcohol consumption as risk factor for adverse brain outcomes and co...BARRY STANLEY 2 fasd
Recent longitudinal study. No mention of fasd or prenatal / pre conceptual alcohol consumption.
If the conclusions are correct how much more do they apply to the fetus, newborn and adolescent/
Intrauterine alcohol exposure and offspring mental health: A systematic reviewBARRY STANLEY 2 fasd
2
Abstract
Background: High levels of alcohol use in pregnancy have been shown to be associated with negative physical health consequences in offspring. However, the literature is less clear
on the association of alcohol use in pregnancy and offspring mental health disorders. We conducted a systematic review to evaluate studies examining this association.
Methods: Studies were identified by searching PsycINFO, PubMed and Web of Science, and were included if they examined alcohol use during pregnancy as an exposure and
offspring mental health at age 3 or older as an outcome. We excluded non-English language publications, and studies of foetal alcohol syndrome.
Results: Thirty-three studies were included and were categorised by mental health outcomes: anxiety/depression, emotional problems, total internalising problems, total
problem score, and conduct disorder. Over half of the analyses reported a positive association of intrauterine alcohol exposure and negative offspring mental health outcomes.
Conclusions: Our review suggests that maternal alcohol use during pregnancy is associated with negative offspring mental health outcomes, even at low to moderate levels of alcohol use. Future investigation using methods that allow stronger causal inference are needed to further investigate if these associations shown are causal.
Smoking is a major public health problem. Cigarette smoking acts as a nicotine delivery in humans, has found to produce profound changes in physiological architecture. Smoking’s as well as chronic pain are one of the major challenging health concerns faced in day to day life. During smoking nicotine is quickly absorbed into the blood stream within a time gap of 30 seconds it reaches the brain. It stimulates the brain to release various chemicals namely epinephrine which will give a pleasurable euphoric effect. It is a proven fact that smoking of tobacco will cause the production of Rheumatoid factors or anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide autoantibodies which is a risk factor for the development of Rheumatoid arthritis. There is a positive relation between smoking and depression and it has been seen smokers use more number of cigarettes when depressed and smoking also caused the individual who is depressed more prone to pain than a normal smoker. Quitting of smoking is quite difficult because of unpleasant withdrawal syndrome that consists of frustration, depression, anxiety, reduced heart rate, increased weight, depressed mood, difficulty in concentration. Because of all these withdrawal symptoms individuals who try to quit start up again very soon. Smoking is a health hazard, this is a well-known fact and the noxious effects are multiple so in management of pain in theseindividual’s, necessary steps has to be put forward in order to quit the habit. Cognitive behavioural therapy or antidepressant therapy in the management of pain of depressed patients who are smokers has shown good results in a rehabilitation centre on the course of the management of pain.
Running head ROUGH DRAFT QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH CRITIQUE AND ETHIC.docxtodd521
Running head: ROUGH DRAFT QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH CRITIQUE AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIOS 1
Running head: ROUGH DRAFT QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH CRITIQUE AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIOS 6
Rough Draft Quantitative Research Critique and Ethical Considerations
RINU GEORGE
Grand Canyon University
NRS-433V-0500
03/22/2020
Title of Paper Comment by ESC: Missing title
PICOT Question: In cigarette smokers whose ages are more than 17 years (P), does nicotine substitution treatment (I), as opposed to utilizing other smoking discontinuation treatments (C) influence smoking end results (O) over a time of a quarter of a year (T)?
Background
There are numerous quantitative studies relating to the topic of nicotine substitution treatment as a therapy for smoking. Two examples of such studies are High-Risk Smoking Behavior and Barriers to Smoking Cessation Among Homeless Individuals by Chen, Nguyen, Malesker, and Morrow (2016), and Effect of Nicotine Replacement Therapy on Quitting by Young Adults in a trial Comparison Cessation services by Buller et al., (2014). Noting the high major challenge in ending nicotine smoking is an addiction, the researchers in these two studies aim to understand how this bottleneck can be addressed. In the first research, the authors note the high risk of smoking among homeless persons, hence a need to study the factors that elevate smoking behaviors and bar smoking cessation among these individuals. In the second study, the researcher notes how despite the high number of young adult smokers, they rarely use or seek medication for smoking, hence evaluate how effective nicotine replacement therapy is effective in ending smoking among this population. Comment by ESC: Incomplete, review grading rubric criteria
How the Articles Support the Nursing Issue
These two articles play contribute to the intervention in the PICOT statement. In the first article, the authors note that one of the most preferred intervention methods by the population of the study is nicotine replacement treatment (NRT), which is similar to the nicotine substitution therapy (NST). It also provides statistics of high stress and the use of smoking to elevate stress and anxiety, hence suggesting why NST may be effective in helping to curbing smoking. While the study population is different to the one stated in the PICOT statement, it is general, representing the homeless individuals who are at high risk of nicotine addiction, hence may include even the individuals above the age of 17 years who are smokers (Chen, Nguyen, Malesker & Morrow, 2016).
In the second article, it offers quantitative evidence of how effective NRT intervention is, in helping to smoke quitting among young adults. This helps in answering the PICOT .
Measuring Drug and Alcohol Use AmongCollege Student-AthletesAbramMartino96
Measuring Drug and Alcohol Use Among
College Student-Athletes∗
James N. Druckman, Northwestern University
Mauro Gilli, Northwestern University
Samara Klar, University of Arizona
Joshua Robison, Aahus University
Objective. Few issues in athletics today receive more attention than drug and alcohol usage, especially
when it comes to college athletics. We seek to address self-report biases related to drug usage and
heavy drinking. Methods. We employ an experimental measurement technique. Results. Our results
suggest that a greater percentage of student-athletes from a major conference knowingly engage in
these two behaviors than self-reports indicate. Specifically, we find 37 percent of respondents seem
to have taken banned performance-enhancing drugs (compared to 4.9 percent who directly admit
to doing so when asked), and 46 percent seem to have consumed more than five drinks in a week
(compared to about 3 percent who openly admit to doing so). Conclusions. We provide evidence for
the extent of self-underreporting when it comes to drug and alcohol usage among college athletes.
That said, future work is needed to accurately pinpoint specific substances and the frequency with
which they are taken; for example, it could be the percentage of individuals using banned substances
stems from consuming significant concentrations of caffeine (e.g., multiple cups of coffee).
Drug and alcohol use by college students is a frequently debated and often controversial
topic. This subject has received particular attention when it comes to student-athletes.
Evidence of the importance of assessing drug and alcohol usage among student-athletes
is exemplified by a 2012 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) report whose
“primary objective [was] to update NCAA policy makers with both current and historical
information concerning levels of drug and alcohol use by student-athletes within college
athletics” (2012: 4). In this article, we employ an experimental technique that allows us
to offer a more accurate assessment of usage than extant studies provide. We begin in the
next section with a literature review that leads us to an explication of our approach. We
then present results from our survey. Our evidence demonstrates that the commonly used
self-report method for estimating drug and alcohol use found in existing studies, including
in the aforementioned NCAA report, seem to understate usage.
The Challenge of Measuring Drug and Alcohol Usage
To our knowledge, there is surprisingly little written on drug use among college student-
athletes and, when it comes to student-athletes’ own input on this controversial issue,
∗Direct correspondence to James N. Druckman, Department of Political Science, Northwestern
University, Scott Hall, 601 University Place, Evanston, IL 60208 〈[email protected]〉. All
data and coding for replication purposes are available at James N. Druckman’s professional webpage
〈http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/�jnd260/publications. ...
Alcohol May Act as Gateway Drug for Cocaine, Says Studysovarizona
Alcohol can be harmful in many ways than one might perceive. People may know enough about the direct implications of alcohol on physical and mental health, but its role as a gateway substance is not known commonly.
We are living through a psychedelic renaissance. Spearheaded by academic research and increasingly of interest to media, government and business, substances like psilocybin, LSD and MDMA are returning to our culture after a 40+ year hiatus.
So why all the excitement? How much of this is hype, and how much is potential for real positive impact?
This presentation is about ways psychedelics may be able to do a lot of good. It covers:
- Current efforts towards psychedelic mainstreaming (an overview of the landscape)
- The problems of trauma, depression, anxiety, and addiction, and how psychedelics can help
- How psychedelics might change our personality traits and values
- Long-termist arguments for why psychedelics could improve the future of human health, wellbeing, and flourishing
- What Aaron is working on in the psychedelic space
Learn more about Aaron here: https://anesmithbeck.com
---
First link in the presentation that doesn't work on SlideShare: https://psychedelic.support/resources/how-to-join-psychedelic-clinical-trial/
Brains on Drugs - This paper looks into the processes related to drugs and be...DuncanMstar
Alcohol drug abuse is a systematic drinking problem that causes both social and health issues. However, alcoholism or alcohol dependence is a disease depicted by unusually high alcohol thirst behavior that results in loss of judgment through over drinking
Fitness/Substance Abuse
Do Alcohol Consumers Exercise More? Findings
From a National Survey
Michael T. French, PhD; Ioana Popovici, PhD; Johanna Catherine Maclean, MA
Abstract
Purpose. Investigate the relationship between alcohol consumption and physical activity
because understanding whether there are common determinants of health behaviors is critical in
designing programs to change risky activities.
Design. Cross-sectional analysis.
Setting. United States.
Subjects. A sample of adults representative of the U.S. population (N 5 230,856) from the
2005 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System.
Measures. Several measures of drinking and exercise were analyzed. Specifications included
numerous health, health behavior, socioeconomic, and demographic control variables.
Results. For women, current drinkers exercise 7.2 more minutes per week than abstainers.
Ten extra drinks per month are associated with 2.2 extra minutes per week of physical activity.
When compared with current abstainers, light, moderate, and heavy drinkers exercise 5.7,
10.1, and 19.9 more minutes per week. Drinking is associated with a 10.1 percentage point
increase in the probability of exercising vigorously. Ten extra drinks per month are associated
with a 2.0 percentage point increase in the probability of engaging in vigorous physical activity.
Light, moderate, and heavy drinking are associated with 9.0, 14.3, and 13.7 percentage point
increases in the probability of exercising vigorously. The estimation results for men are similar to
those for women.
Conclusions. Our results strongly suggest that alcohol consumption and physical activity are
positively correlated. The association persists at heavy drinking levels. (Am J Health Promot
2009;24[1]:2–10.)
Key Words: Health Behavior, Lifestyle, Alcohol, Exercise, Health
Consciousness, Sensation Seeking, Prevention Research. Manuscript format:
research, Research purpose: modeling/relationship testing, Study design:
nonexperimental, Outcome measure: physical activity, behavioral, Setting: state/
national, Health focus: fitness/physical activity, Strategy: skill building/behavior
change, Target population age: adult, Target population circumstances:
education/income level and race/ethnicity
PURPOSE
The epidemiologic literature has
firmly established that certain lifestyle
health-related choices are associated
with an elevated risk of morbidity and
mortality.1–3 Excessive alcohol con-
sumption, physical inactivity, smoking,
and unhealthy dietary practices ac-
count for a large proportion of pre-
ventable chronic diseases and deaths in
the United States. However, the precise
association between these behaviors is
still the subject of longstanding debate.
There are reasons to believe that
health behaviors may not be indepen-
dent of each other. One view purports
that individuals’ motivation to prevent
disease or improve health could cause
the clustering of health behaviors.4 In
other words, health consciousness
could l.
1. Stress in College Students
The Factors That Contribute to Stress in College Students
Caroline Milch
Salem State University
Author Note:
Caroline Milch, Department of Psychology, Salem State University
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Caroline Milch, Department of
Psychology, Salem State University, Salem, Ma 01970
2. Stress in College Students
Abstract
This experiment aimed to find out how nicotine effects stress levels. In a controlled study
of 17 participants, each participant was asked to fill out a nicotine dependence test to indicate
who was addicted to nicotine. There were 9 smokers and 8 nonsmokers. Each participant was
required to do public speaking for five minutes and mental math for five minutes. The purpose of
this study was to induce stress on each participant. To measure stress, each participant’s heart
rate was taken and a subjective test was given at the end. The researcher hypothesized that those
who smoke will report more stress than nonsmokers. The results were not significant enough to
support the hypothesis, however there were some indication that smokers were more stressed out
than nonsmokers.
3. Stress in College Students
Introduction
Stress is a big part of everyone’s life in America and many adults use nicotine to cope
with stress. People who are addicted to nicotine find that under any amount of stress, smoking a
cigarette is a great stress reliever. However, it may be a very temporary stress reliever. After a
certain period of time that someone has been abstinent from nicotine, the individual is once again
stressed out, not only from everyday life but also from the withdrawal effects.
A recent meta-analysis by Heishman, Kleykamp and Singleton (2010) reviewed the
outcomes of 41 studies conducted between 1994 and 2008 on the effects of nicotine on
performance. The studies each included the researchers giving nicotine to the adult smokers and
non-smokers and then tested the participants in nine different areas of performance. These areas
included motor abilities, attention, and memory. Each study showed a significant increase in
performance. As noted by Heishman, Kleykamp and Singleton (2010), a key limitation of the
literature is that nicotine only shows performance enhancement when it is not confounded with
withdrawal relief.
Recent studies have shown that nicotine withdrawal dramatically decreases human
performance and over time, increases stress in one’s life. Parrot, Garnham, Wesnes, and Pincock
(1996) investigated the effects of nicotine abstinence on task performance and mood state over a
period of 24 hours. The researchers were testing a group of 20 smokers. Each participant was
required to smoke a cigarette at least 15 minutes before the test session in order for them to have
a non-deprived baseline. The study included two test sessions, one of normal smoking and then
another with smoking cessation. The non-smoking test required the participants to stay abstinent
from smoking for 24 hours. Their performance was checked after 2, 6 and then 24 hour periods.
The researchers also checked their subjective feelings every two hours. The participants showed
4. Stress in College Students
a decrease in task performance, heart rate, feelings of depression, anxiety, anger, restlessness and
the urge to smoke. This was all compared to the test during the normal smoking period. Besides
heart rate, abstinence symptoms were reduced in severity by the end of the 24 hour period. These
results suggest that burden of the withdrawal effects can cause more accumulative stress in one’s
life.
The next study was aimed to find a relationship between addictive behaviors and
addictive overlap to stress, acceptance of others and purpose of life. Okasaka, Morita, Nakatani,
and Fujisawa (2008) conducted a survey on 691 college students among eight universities. The
study consisted of three different surveys that assessed food addiction, nicotine addiction and
alcohol addiction; the Eating Attitude Test- 20, The Kurihama Alcoholism Screening Test and
The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence. Next, the students were given two other tests that
assessed stress and acceptance from others and then purpose of life. The results were compared
between students with addictive behaviors, addictive tendencies and without addictive behaviors.
In regards to food and nicotine addiction, the researchers found vastly different results between
three groups that were observed for stress, acceptance from others and Purpose in life scores.
However, there were not any notable differences found in regards to alcohol addiction. They also
found that 28.8% of students displayed only one addictive behavior, 8.5% of students displayed
two addictive behaviors and only 0.4% of students displayed all three addictive behaviors. The
scores displayed notable differences in stress and acceptance from others among students with
one addictive behavior, two or three addictive behaviors, and no addictive behaviors at all.
However, there appeared to be no differences in the Purpose in Life score in regards to
overlapping addictions. The researchers concluded that there is a relationship between mental
health, addictive behaviors and overlapping addiction among university students.
5. Stress in College Students
A study that was conducted by Parrot and Murphy (2012) aimed to explain the way
nicotine has stress-inducing side effects on cigarette smokers. Proposed studies have shown that
taking up smoking leads to higher stress and depression in one’s life. Also, “cross sectional
studies show that adult smokers report more irritability, stress and depression then non-smokers.”
(Parrot et. al) The withdrawal effects of nicotine addiction are explained using the “deprivation
reverse model”. People who are addicted to nicotine often experience subtle abstinence
symptoms when they aren’t smoking cigarettes and day by day these can increase everyday
stress. Adolescents who pick up smoking become more stressed and when they quit, it eventually
reduces the stress in their life. Parrot and Murphy made an explanatory leaflet to show to 82
cigarette smokers in a cohort study. The participants read the leaflet which enhanced their
knowledge of the adverse effects of smoking. Their understanding of the information was
maintained a week later. Hence, these informational leaflets can be useful in schools and with
adults who are already smoking. This may prevent people from starting to smoke or give them
incentive to quit.
Wardle, Munafo and Witt (2010) aimed to find out the effects of social stress during
subtle nicotine abstinence. According to the researchers, when someone relapses to smoking, it
is often participated by stress. However, not a lot is known about how nicotine withdrawal can
affect the average response to everyday stress. Also, there is not a lot known if nicotine
replacements actually reduce the way the withdrawal effects change stress responses. The
researchers use the Trier Social Stress Test, to study subjective feelings, heart rate, blood
pressure and salivary cortisol. In the study, there were 49 regular smokers that were randomly
assigned to one of three groups: smoking normal(SM), 12 hours of abstention with a placebo
patch (PL), and then 12 hours of abstention with nicotine patch (NIC). After participating in a
6. Stress in College Students
single session using the TSST, the results were expected; there were increases in subjective
negative effect, heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure and cortisol. All of the groups did not
differ in subjective or cardiovascular responses but the placebo patch group had larger increase
in cortisol due to stress. The researchers concluded that the increase of cortisol is an indication
that the human body goes through a great amount of stress while trying to stop smoking
cigarettes. On the other hand, cortisol is what allows the body to deal with stress in an
appropriate way that does not include completely breaking down. Nicotine addiction can
actually make the stress system irregular which can overall make the cortisol levels in the body
lower. When the cortisol levels are lower,smoking relapse is expected because the body no
longer deals with stress like someone who was never addicted to cigarettes. The fact that the
group with the nicotine patch also deals with higher cortisol levels like those who were smoking
cigarettes may be an indication that the patch causes undesired side effects.
Balk, Lynskey and Agrawal (2009) performed a study that tried to find a relationship
between nicotine dependence and stressful life events. Previous studies have found a positive
correlation between the amount of stressful life events and nicotine dependence. The way they
went about executing this study was using data from the 2001-2002 National Epidemiological
Survey on Alcohol and Related Condition that 18,013 smokers took. While looking at the results
of the survey, they were examining if the amount of stressful life events (SLEs) in the past 12
months was related to meeting the criteria for nicotine dependence (ND) in the same 12 months.
Many stressful life events were related to nicotine dependence in the past 12 months. Those who
had more than one stressful life event had significantly higher nicotine dependence than those
with only one or none at all. Although this data cannot make causal conclusions, the researchers
7. Stress in College Students
found a positive correlation between the two. Those who have a lot of stress in their lives
possibly could find it harder to quit smoking and that’s why there is a positive relationship.
All of the studies reviewed above investigate the stress inducing effects of nicotine on
one’s life. It is relatively clear that nicotine causes a lot of unwanted stress in one’s life. They all
touch upon the subject of stress and nicotine but do not directly investigate the question whether
being addicted to nicotine makes life more stressful. The purpose of this study is to compare the
stress levels of smokers and non-smokers using a quasi-experimental design. In a laboratory
setting, I will have both groups do the same sets of activities that have different levels of stress.
Each participant will have a heart rate/ cardiovascular monitor to test their stress levels. Also,
there will be a survey to test their subjective feelings in order to make better conclusive results.
The hypothesis is the participants who smoke will report more stress than those who do not
smoke.
Method
Participants
The participants consisted of 17 students, (9 smokers, 8 nonsmokers) 10 females, 7 males.
Each student was 18 years or older.
Measures
Before the test started each participant was given the Fagerstrom Nicotine Dependence Test
(Fagerstrom et.al.) to measure the amount of nicotine dependence. This study contains nominal
variables; smokers and nonsmokers. The students were separated into groups by what they
scored on the questionnaire. All students who scored a zero on the questionnaire were classified
as “nonsmokers” anyone who scored a 2 or above were classified as “smokers” During the study,
participants were tested with parts of the Trier Social Stress Test (Kirschbaum et. al.) The
8. Stress in College Students
researcher measured each participant’s heart rate before the test, during the test and after the test.
The researcher did this by finding their pulse on their wrist, measured the pulse for fifteen
seconds and then multiplied that number by four. Once the participants completed the test
section, the researcher administered a four-question subjective questionnaire.
Procedure
Students were recruited by word of mouth. Each student who agreed to participate in the study
was required to fill out the Fagerstrom Nicotine Dependence test. Among those participants who
were in psychology classes were able to receive extra credit via the online sona system. To
measure student’s stress levels, they participated in parts of the Trier Social Stress Test. The
students were asked to prepare a speech as if they were being interviewed for their dream job.
The researcher acted as the manager for this hypothetical job they were being interviewed for.
Each participant was required to speak for a total of five minutes and if they stopped any time
before the five minutes were up, they were required to keep going. After the five minutes were
completed, their initial heart rate was recorded. The next part of the test included the students
performing mental math in front of the researcher. The students were asked to count backwards
from 1,022 in intervals of 13. They had five minutes to do so. If participants were to mess up the
calculations, they were required to start over and go back to 1,002. After this test, the student’s
ending heart rate was recorded. Finally a four question subjective test was given to the
participants that asked how stressed they were during each section of the study.
Results
An independent samples t test showed no significant difference between smokers and
nonsmokers in their stress levels and heart rate. Smokers showed higher stress levels (M=9.67,
SD=3.67) compared to nonsmokers (M= 8.36, SD=4.75). However smokers showed lower heart
9. Stress in College Students
rates (M=75.71, SD=7.97) compared to nonsmokers (M=83.96, SD=13.35). The results for total
stress were t(15)=.631 and for average heart rate t(15)=-1.57. Neither of these scores were
significant enough to support the hypothesis.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to compare the stress levels of a smoker to a nonsmoker.
The hypothesis was that smokers would report higher stress levels and have a higher heart rate
than nonsmokers. There was not a significant difference between smokers and nonsmokers in
terms of their heart rate and stress levels. The results turned out this way due to a lack of a
controlled laboratory setting and professionalism; along with the lack of highly addicted cigarette
smokers. In the interest of time, participants who were moderately addicted to cigarettes were
allowed to participate in the study instead of only highly addicted participants. This lessened the
likely hood of nicotine causing a heightened reaction to stress. Compared to other studies, the
results were relatively similar because smokers reported more stress than nonsmokers. However,
the results of this study were not as conclusive due to the many limitations of this study.
The strengths of this study were the unexpected learning experience for the participants.
In the portion where each student had to think of a speech to say in front of a prospective
employer, it was a challenge to see how well they were prepared for the interview process for
their dream job. Many students reported being amazed at how difficult it was to think of things to
say about themselves that would convince a prospective employer to hire them. Also many of the
smokers who participated in this study gained some insight on unknown negative effects of
nicotine.
This study had many drawbacks that skewed the results. The sample size was not large
enough to produce significant results. The demographics were quite limited because the
10. Stress in College Students
researcher collected a convenience sample and many participants were familiar with the
researcher. The goal was to stress participants out, but due to the fact that the participants knew
the researcher, the stressful nature of public speaking was diminished. Also, the original Trier
Social Stress test included two other people in the room with the researcher. Those two extra
judges were not included in this study. If there were the two extra judges, the stress of public
speaking would have been higher. Also, the way participants reacted to stress was almost entirely
dependent on the type of person the participant would. For example, one participant who was a
smoker did great on the public speaking portion because he appeared to be a confident person
who worked well under pressure. A female participant in the nonsmokers group did not work as
well under pressure which in turn produced higher stress scores. Overall, a larger sample size
and a better resemblance of the Trier Social Stress test would have produced more significant
results to support the hypothesis.
11. Stress in College Students
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