This document discusses definitions and processes related to assessment in education. It begins by defining key terms like formative assessment, summative assessment, and self-assessment. It then discusses how assessments are shaped by theories of social constructivism and learning as an individual and collective process. Assessments are also influenced by language and can have moral and ethical dimensions due to the value judgments inherent in terms. The document explores distinguishing between assessment and evaluation, noting they overlap and the difference is mainly one of scope and context. It argues the assessment process can be applied universally across different contexts.
Power Point presentation about the article written by: Simonsen, B. et al. (2008). Evidence-Based in Practises in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practise. Education and treatment of children, v31 nº3, 351-380
Essential Skills: Critical Thinking For College Studentsnoblex1
Much literature is available on programs to teach critical thinking, and a substantial amount of evidence indicates critical thinking can be taught and learned, especially when instruction is specifically designed to encourage transfer of skills. Nevertheless, the types of studies required to confirm with certitude the efficacy of teaching critical thinking present practical and methodological problems.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/essential-skills-critical-thinking-for-college-students/
Power Point presentation about the article written by: Simonsen, B. et al. (2008). Evidence-Based in Practises in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practise. Education and treatment of children, v31 nº3, 351-380
Essential Skills: Critical Thinking For College Studentsnoblex1
Much literature is available on programs to teach critical thinking, and a substantial amount of evidence indicates critical thinking can be taught and learned, especially when instruction is specifically designed to encourage transfer of skills. Nevertheless, the types of studies required to confirm with certitude the efficacy of teaching critical thinking present practical and methodological problems.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/essential-skills-critical-thinking-for-college-students/
Overall, assessments are used either as a Programmatic Assessment or as a Learning Assessment. One of the most familiar learning assessments is the multiple choice assessment that reflects the typical pen and paper traditional classroom test (Popham, 2006). However, these tests are not very easy to construct to ensure validity due to unclear directions, ambiguous statements, unintended clues, complicated syntax and difficult vocabulary (Popham, 2006). Other learning assessments with construct validity, such as the essay and the reflective journal, tend to focus on student-centered pedagogy. These assessments are ideal for assessing the learning outcomes of the individual and increase the student’s personal responsibility for their own learning. This reading document provides a brief summary of assessment tools that are available for both programmatic and learning.
Problem Based Learning In Comparison To Traditional Teaching As Perceived By ...iosrjce
Objectives: To compare lecture based learning (LBL) with problem based learning (PBL).
Methods: A cross sectional prospective study was carried out among 145 3rd year MBBS students in
Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College(JNMC), Aligarh. The study was performedfor a period of 60 days. Data was
collected by means of structured questionnaire.
Results: 65 (44.8%) students were girls while 80 (55.2%) were boys. 89 (61.4%) students liked only PBL
followed by both LBL and PBL by 104(71.7%) students. 59(40.7 %) students claimed that PBL has led to better
understanding of subject while 71(48.9%) respondents favored both LBL and PBL. 98(67.6%) respondents
admitted that PBL has led to more clarification of their concepts while 105(72.4%) students appreciated both.
Coverage of sufficient syllabus through PBL and both was claimed by 91(62.8%) and 105(72.4%) students
respectively. Majority 94(64.8%) was satisfied with training of the teacher for traditional teaching while
106(73.1%) were satisfied with training of facilitator for PBL. 69(47.5%) students were satisfied with
availability of resources for PBL while 71(48.9%) were for both methods combined together. 91(62.8%)
respondents preferred present scenario (LBL parallel with PBL)in JNMC.
Conclusion: LBL must be in symbiosis with PBL for better analytical approach and clarification of concepts.
There is need to improve the information resources for PBL and enhancement of practical knowledge of
students.
Overall, assessments are used either as a Programmatic Assessment or as a Learning Assessment. One of the most familiar learning assessments is the multiple choice assessment that reflects the typical pen and paper traditional classroom test (Popham, 2006). However, these tests are not very easy to construct to ensure validity due to unclear directions, ambiguous statements, unintended clues, complicated syntax and difficult vocabulary (Popham, 2006). Other learning assessments with construct validity, such as the essay and the reflective journal, tend to focus on student-centered pedagogy. These assessments are ideal for assessing the learning outcomes of the individual and increase the student’s personal responsibility for their own learning. This reading document provides a brief summary of assessment tools that are available for both programmatic and learning.
Problem Based Learning In Comparison To Traditional Teaching As Perceived By ...iosrjce
Objectives: To compare lecture based learning (LBL) with problem based learning (PBL).
Methods: A cross sectional prospective study was carried out among 145 3rd year MBBS students in
Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College(JNMC), Aligarh. The study was performedfor a period of 60 days. Data was
collected by means of structured questionnaire.
Results: 65 (44.8%) students were girls while 80 (55.2%) were boys. 89 (61.4%) students liked only PBL
followed by both LBL and PBL by 104(71.7%) students. 59(40.7 %) students claimed that PBL has led to better
understanding of subject while 71(48.9%) respondents favored both LBL and PBL. 98(67.6%) respondents
admitted that PBL has led to more clarification of their concepts while 105(72.4%) students appreciated both.
Coverage of sufficient syllabus through PBL and both was claimed by 91(62.8%) and 105(72.4%) students
respectively. Majority 94(64.8%) was satisfied with training of the teacher for traditional teaching while
106(73.1%) were satisfied with training of facilitator for PBL. 69(47.5%) students were satisfied with
availability of resources for PBL while 71(48.9%) were for both methods combined together. 91(62.8%)
respondents preferred present scenario (LBL parallel with PBL)in JNMC.
Conclusion: LBL must be in symbiosis with PBL for better analytical approach and clarification of concepts.
There is need to improve the information resources for PBL and enhancement of practical knowledge of
students.
Cosee manuscript for national journal on teacher learningWilliam Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national and international refereed, blind-reviewed academic journals. NFJ publishes articles academic intellectual diversity, multicultural issues, management, business, administration, issues focusing on colleges, universities, and schools, all aspects of schooling, special education, counseling and addiction, international issues of education, organizational behavior, theory and development, and much more. DR. WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS is Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982). See: www.nationalforum.com
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; counseling and addiction, international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
Running head: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 1
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 2
Translating Educational Research into Practice
Problem
For a long time, education research has not been able to impact classroom instructional practices and educational policies. Educational based researchers argue that their primary work is to research the various aspects of learning and teaching to then present their findings at various conferences and publishing them in different educational journals. Their busy schedule does not allow them to train practitioners (Powney & Watts, 2018). On the other hand, practitioners are busy concentrating on there, and they do not have time to review new literature. This brings up the question as to who is responsible for this gap. In the real sense, there should be a connection between the two, and both parties should play a role in bridging this gap.
Practices, Policies, and Procedures That Have Led to the Problem
There are various reasons for this persistent gap between the teaching practices that teachers use and the guidance that educational research provides. However, three of them stand out. They include the trustworthiness issue, teacher preparation issues, and the research practice issue. The trustworthiness issue comes in because much of the published educational research and disseminated to teachers, policymakers and researchers are often not good and of uneven quality. Research is incredibly demanding, and it is not always possible to choose the most appropriate methodological approach. It is essential that the methodology is applied rigorously whether it is for qualitative or quantitative research (Suter, 2012).
Teachers, on the other hand, want to provide quality education to their children. When they turn into research to aid in teaching, their main expectation is that the information they get is trustworthy. If the information is not trustworthy both the teacher and the student will fail terribly. The teachers also have to be prepared. The applicability and relevance of a research finding will be minimal if the administrators and teachers are unable to access the data, unable to develop strategies for implementing the research findings and do not understand or are unable to interpret the research findings in a meaningful and accurate manner (Fenwick, Edwards, & Sawchuk, 2012).
While teacher preparation and research trustworthiness play significant roles in determining the extent to which research informs instructional practices and educational policies, a fundamental problem is our inability to understand and identify an environment where the research findings can be applied in complex school systems as well as classrooms. While specific strategies, instructional models and approaches may be useful in a setting that is controlled, there is scanty information about the factors that impede or foster application of these modalities under varying contexts and among diverse teachers and students' pop.
Culture Matters: Learners’ Expectations Towards Instructor-Support (Richter 2...Richter Thomas
Pre-Publish version of: Richter T. (2012). Culture Matters: Learners’ Expectations Towards Instructor-Support. In: Bastiaens, T., & Marks, G. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Global Learn Asia Pacific 2012 Conference, Chesapeake, VA: AACE, pp. 130-135.
The Mismatch between EAP Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom Practices toward For...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Beliefs are formed through personal experiences and the interactions that individuals are involved in daily life (Hsieh, 2002). These beliefs can be transformed into attitudes, which in turn affect intentions, and decisions are formed through the intentions that lead to the action (Bauch,1984). The match or mismatch between instructors’ beliefs and practices, between instructors’ cognitions and their authentic practices in the classroom are two main fields of the teaching process (Clark & Peterson, 1986). However, teachers may not always apply what they believe in the classroom. This study aims to reveal the discrepancy between what they believe theoretically and what they do in the classroom. To this end, three instruments were used in this study: (1) classroom observations, (2) semi-structured interviews, and (3) a questionnaire. The
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
1. BACK TO BASICS: definitions and
processes of assessments
Maddalena Taras*
Abstract
In a performance – and results – driven educational world the concept of formative assessment has inspired the educational community by its discourse and focus on learning and learners. However, a number of controversies have surfaced: primary among these are terminological opacities and disparities both within and across continents and sectors. (TARAS, 2007b, 2009). Among others, Perrenoud (1998) signals the importance of positioning theoretical and practical discourse on assessment within a wider pedagogic context and within theories of learning. Taras (2005) argues that concepts of assessment, including formative assessment, are best and more effectively understood firstly within the wider assessment framework and, secondly, within the relationships of summative, formative and self-assessment. This paper examines definitions of assessments. It begins with basic concepts of assessment, summative, formative, self-assessment and feedback and inter- relates these. The principles inherent in definitions set the parameters of both processes and practice as part of a logical sequence and framework.
Keywords: Assessment. Formative assessment. Summative assessment.
Resumo
Num mundo educacional guiado pelo desempenho e pelos resultados, o conceito de avaliação formativa inspirou a comunidade da área com seu discurso e foco na aprendizagem e nos aprendizes. No entanto, várias controvérsias surgiram, destacando-se as nebulosidades e disparidades terminológicas entre os diversos setores de pesquisa e mesmo dentro de cada um deles (TARAS, 2007b, 2009). Perrenoud (1998), entre outros autores, assinala a importância de situar-se o discurso teórico e prático sobre a avaliação num contexto pedagógico mais amplo e no âmbito das teorias de aprendizagem. Taras (2005) argumenta que os conceitos de avaliação, incluindo-se a avaliação formativa, são mais bem entendidos e têm mais eficácia quando considerados numa estrutura mais abrangente e examinados segundo as suas relações, ou seja, quando se observam as relações entre avaliação somativa, avaliação formativa e autoavaliação. Este artigo, cujo propósito é examinar algumas definições de avaliação, apresenta primeiramente os conceitos básicos de avaliação, avaliação somativa, avaliação formativa, autoavaliação e feedback e em seguida os inter-relaciona. Os princípios implícitos nas definições determinam os parâmetros tanto dos processos quanto da prática como parte de uma estrutura e de uma sequência lógicas.
Palavras-chave: Avaliação. Avaliação formative. Avaliação somativa.
* University of Sunderland (United Kingdom). E-mail: maddalena.taras@sunderland.ac.uk
Introduction
This paper explores the principles of the process of assessment within any context or function (whether pre-selected or chosen after the assessment). It supports and develops the discourse and rationale for the centrality of the understanding of the process over the functions of assessment within all types of assessments, and particularly formative assessment. (TARAS, 2005). It does not present a historical time-line of the development of definitions of formative and summative assessment. Nor is it an analysis of different aspects of assessment seen in the light of a broad theory of pedagogy (eg PERRENOUD, 1998; BLACK; WILIAM, 2005), although it does inevitably situate assessment as part of the triumvirate of assessing, learning and teaching. In fact, this paper supports the position that there can be no real development to “expert” without assessment (ATKINS et al., 1993).
Práxis Educativa, Ponta Grossa, v.5, n.2, p. 123-130, jul.-dez. 2010. Disponível em <http://www.periodicos.uepg.br>
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Theories of learning
Within a social-constructivist theory of learning, the individual negotiates meaning with its surroundings and context and assimilates it by restructuring and reorganising individual knowledge and concepts. (JAMES, 2006; HAGER; HODKINSON, 2009). Therefore, the individual is both the product of the context and a direct challenge to it by bringing unique and specific interpretations. Similarly, assessment and learning will draw on the constant interaction between the individual and the collective experience and information base which has impacted on the individual and context. We are all constantly assessing our position, our position within the collective and the collective’s position.
Therefore, each individual although learning and assessing within a socially constructed context will necessarily differ from others in similar situations. This uniqueness will require a continual negotiation of meanings, concepts and ideas. Even when working within the same definitions, criteria and processes, it would not be an aberration for different outcomes of learning, assessment and understanding to occur. Accepting this endless diversity within education is an important first step when hoping to work towards a relative harmonising of concepts and definitions, ideas, ideals and understanding. This, however, does not preclude the need for coherence and logical associations within these personal experiences of individual and collective educational “realities”.
Language
Language is not neutral. Meanings associated with different words and terms are not neutral. Assessment and related terms are heavily value and emotionally laden; therefore within collective and personal interpretations moral and ethical factors are also involved. (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 1980, 2002; FAIRCLOUGH, 1994; TARAS, 2007b). Socially and politically, “assessment” is potentially dynamite: the very word is used sparingly. Assessment of research papers for journal publication is referred to as “peer review”. In the UK in 2008, the RAE (Research Assessment Exercise)1
1 In the UK, the RAE is a process where individual universities put forward their best researchers’ articles to be assessed. This usually occurs every 4 years and each researcher presents a maximum of four academic articles. It is on the basis of these results that government grants for research are allocated, so a great deal of money and prestige are at stake. The reviewers making the judgements of quality on these in the 2008 RAE, were so concerned that their assessment integrity would be questioned, that they destroyed their notes explaining their decision. Surely, what they must realise is that even the categorisation of the papers, without caused turmoil by its potential lack of transparency when the feedback from reviewers was destroyed to protect their “professional judgement”. There is an annual furore when national exam results are announced and dissected by the media. On an individual level, idiosyncratic and personal histories will inevitably result in different interpretations. (TARAS, 2007b; COFFIELD; EDWARDS, 2009; HAGER; HODKINSON, 2009).
Assessment or evaluation?
In education, with a globalisation of research, this distinction is becoming increasingly complex. In Francophone literature (for example PERRENOUD, 1998), and languages of essentially Latin roots, where the distinction is generally not made, the use of ‘evaluation’ is often preferred.
In the UK and much of the Anglophone world, the distinction is generally that evaluation covers the macro spectrum e.g. university, course, documentation of programmes, whereas assessment covers the micro i.e. the assignment, and assessment of smaller units of student work. This distinction is essentially one of context.
Within the intentions of this paper, the distinction is perhaps artificial because it focuses on processes and principles and thus aims at englobing diverse and disparate contexts. Therefore, whether we are focusing on programme evaluation, as was Scriven (1967), or whether we are focusing on assessment product in complex, multi-criterion contexts, as was Sadler (1989), or on classroom interaction as does the work of Black and Wiliam on Assessment for Learning, what this paper claims and wishes to argue for and demonstrate is that a single assessment process can be used to represent each of these three very different contexts: i.e. that the process and basic parameters of assessment can be considered universal and technically similar for all contexts.
Another distinction to consider is that of implicit versus explicit assessment. The implicit tends to cover areas of ad hoc, informal assessments, i.e. assessment of work in progress or classroom interaction, whilst the explicit tends to be of product assessment where criteria and standards are established and shared.
In the literature, evaluation and assessment are seen as overlapping and not discrete making the distinction difficult in theory and practice. (SCRIVEN, 1967; CULLINGFORD, 1997; BLACK, 1998). The considering the notes, implicates their decision. The RAE is now going to be called REF (Research Excellence Framework): could this be linked to the phobia which surrounds the word assessment?
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Back to basics: definitions and processes of assessments
Práxis Educativa, Ponta Grossa, v.5, n.2, p. 123-130, jul.-dez. 2010. Disponível em <http://www.periodicos.uepg.br>
ubiquitous nature of assessment has long been recognised and the distinctions noted above are essentially a difference in scope and context and perhaps detract from the commonality of process.
In order to coordinate and understand the fundamental principles of assessment, it is helpful to incorporate all aspects of ‘evaluation’ and ‘assessment’ into a single and coherent argument: this would cover both process and product, informal and formal.
Definition of assessment
The term usually refers to a judgement and it is a process that permeates most of our lives. Within the educational context, this also takes place at all levels and contexts and many names have been assigned to this process. However, it is perhaps pertinent to remember that assessment is assessment is assessment and that everything can be and is judged.
The following definition of assessment or evaluation describes and refers to the process of assessment and it also explains how the judgement is reached: as noted, this judgement can be of both process and product, explicit or implicit, formal or informal or at any point along these continua.
Evaluation is itself a methodological activity which is essentially similar whether we are trying to evaluate coffee machines or teaching machines, plans for a house or plans for a curriculum. The activity consists simply in the gathering and combining of performance data with a weighted set of goal scales to yield either comparative or numerical ratings, and in the justification of (a) the data-gathering instruments, (b) the weightings, and (c) the selection of goals. (SCRIVEN, 1967, p. 40).
Scriven clarifies that these are universal principles and the paper illustrates with the specific example of programme evaluation.
Functions of summative and formative assessment
Summative and formative assessments, over the past 30 years have increasingly been defined and based on their functions. Functions or roles (used interchangeably in the paper) are the use or purpose the assessment will serve: this can be decided prior, during or after the assessment. In higher education, the distinction seems to have been dealt with pragmatically perhaps because all assessments are within institutional control and so not in direct conflict with external agencies. (TARAS, 2008c). Brown and Knight (1994) represent the trend:
There are many blends of purpose, reflecting the multiple assessment audiences and the large number of ways of assessing learning. ‘Formative’ and ‘summative’ are useful tags, but no more. (BROWN; KNIGHT, 1994, p. 15-16).
In the compulsory sector, where exams are controlled by external agencies, the conflict has been more evident (BLACK; WILIAM, 1998; SEBATANE, 1998). The work spearheaded by Black and Wiliam and much of the Assessment for Learning research in the compulsory sector is predicated on this distinction between summative and formative assessment, where summative assessment refers to externally accredited exams and formative assessment as being that which provides feedback within the classroom. The emphasis on the distinction and the separation of the two has been signalled as a weakness in their seminal paper of 1998 by Biggs (1998).
This focus on functions of assessment was set in motion in part by Bloom et al. (1971) who were examining the consequences of assessment and concluded that they are as important as the processes or intentions. Whilst acknowledging the critical importance of consequences, this paper does not focus on this aspect, but limits itself to the processes of assessment.
Summative assessment
Summative assessment is generally equated with final test or exams. In HE the practice of providing feedback from graded work has meant that summative and formative assessment have worked together and supported each other to the same end i.e. supporting learners and learning. This is reflected in the literature which generally does not put a negative focus on summative assessment. (BROWN; KNIGHT, 1994; BIGGS, 1998). In the Assessment for Learning discourse, it is generally vilified as being the promulgator of the negative and destructive aspects of education which deflects from the support of learning (TARAS, 2007b, 2008c). Broadfoot (2002, 2007, 2008) calls it a Frankenstein’s monster. The headings she uses in the 2008 paper leave no doubt as to Broadfoot’s scathing view on the “functions” of summative assessment and as to its effect on the lives of learners and the educational community. However, summative assessment and external exams are not all negative since exam successes for students have traditionally been a route to a better future. The problem has been
4. 126 Maddalena Taras
Práxis Educativa, Ponta Grossa, v.5, n.2, p. 123-130, jul.-dez. 2010. Disponível em <http://www.periodicos.uepg.br>
with all the corruption implications and practices that have lasted millennia. (BROADFOOT, 2007; STOBART, 2008).
Assessment functions and processes
An important question for this paper is: how do functions of assessment link to the process of assessment? Will a chosen function change or influence the process in any way? The answer is no. The process of assessment is not affected by the potential functions. Therefore, the two are separate.
However, with the focus on functions, the processes of assessment have been eclipsed and the critical aspect of understanding and ensuring the process is transparent and ethical is difficult to monitor. Scriven (1967) had warned against this happening. A second problem seems to have arisen - that of separating the summative and formative assessment processes to mirror the recommendations of the literature supporting working with functions of assessment (TARAS, 2008c, 2009). This state of affairs requires the duplication of summative and formative assessment to respect the different functions (BLACK, 2003; WILIAM, 2000). Taras (2005, 2009) demonstrates that this duplication is unnecessary, time-consuming and confusing to tutors and learners alike.
Functions
Functions are considered a problem for this paper because they have, firstly, dominated the recent literature. Secondly, they are responsible for educationalists losing sight of both the processes of assessment and the essential neutrality of assessment itself.
The first point of dominating the literature is in itself not necessarily a bad thing because it can contribute to reminding us that throughout history assessment has been used unjustly and ruined lives (STOBART, 2008). So, can we control how assessment is used? The answer is no. Even if we are prioritising positive, ethical functions such as supporting learning, we cannot ensure that the results of the process of assessment will be used as we intended (TARAS, 2005, 2007c, papers In: GARDNER, 2006). Therefore, focusing on functions will not contribute to ensuring that assessment is used ethically.
For the second point, the consequences of losing sight of the process of assessment are very serious: if this is not monitored, it effectively means that we are not ensuring that how we assess and, subsequently, the results of the assessment are either carried out properly or transparently reported. This will contribute to making the essential neutrality of assessment (point three) even less neutral. It also has serious implications for the reliability and validity of assessment, but discussion of this area is beyond the scope of this paper.
It could be argued that this discourse is creating a storm in a teacup. However, if this teacup is an individual’s assessment, it can have serious implications for their future. Furthermore, it can be argued that focus on formative functions will not impinge on the integrity, validity or reliability of summative work. The problem is, as noted above, that often assessments have multiple functions and what begins as a learning exercise which is informal, implicit and likely not to be rigorous, may be used for critical decisions. Therefore, the result could be that final, important judgements are made on the strength of ad-hoc, informal assessments.
To avoid this, we need assessments to have the rigour and care attributed to summative work, but with the intentions to support learning and teaching, and have the positive attributes generally attributed to formative assessment. This aim is within our grasp if we focus on the processes as opposed to the functions of assessment.
The process of assessment
The process of assessment is inherent in the definition which will be repeated for expediency:
The activity consists simply in the gathering and combining of performance data with a weighted set of goal scales to yield either comparative or numerical ratings, and in the justification of (a) the data-gathering instruments, (b) the weightings, and (c) the selection of goals. (SCRIVEN, 1967, p. 40).
Therefore, the parameters are chosen i.e. (a) the data-gathering instruments, (b) the weightings, and (c) the selection of goals and these are justified. Assessment is a complex process with all the elements used to make the judgment in constant interplay. The result is the judgement that can be compared to a standard or a number on a standardised scale.
Summative assessment provides information which Sadler (1989) calls “Knowledge of Results”. This information can be in the form of a summary grade or it can be “comparative”. Comparative here means the short-fall between the perfect or ideal and the performance that is being judged. Therefore, Scriven’s definition pre-empts part of Ramaprasad’s definition of feedback which signals a “gap” to be bridged (1983).
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Feedback and formative assessment
The definition of formative assessment is perhaps the most contentious and varied of all the definitions of assessment proffered as is its relationship to summative and self-assessment. Formative assessment as a concept, and its close companion feedback, is not new: it focuses on means, techniques and procedures to support learning through feedback. Therefore feedback is a crucial aspect of formative assessment. But, whereas summative assessment produces feedback, formative assessment must use feedback.
Sadler adopts Ramaprasad’s definition in his theory of formative assessment. This definition demonstrates that feedback as opposed to knowledge of results is a complex process which requires the active participation of learners in furthering their own development. It requires an understanding of the context of assessment, the parameters and for learners to understand their position and own knowledge base within this context “(feedback) requires knowledge of the standard or goal, skills in making multicriterion comparisons, and the development of ways and means for reducing the discrepancy between what is produced and what is aimed for” (SADLER, 1989, p. 142).
Since feedback according to this definition is a first necessary step to formative assessment, it could be called formative feedback. However, if we look at Ramaprasad’s definition, it is more than just potential for improving: “feedback is information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some wa.” (RAMAPRASAD, 1983, p. 4, emphasis added)
In fact, Sadler’s definition of formative assessment is not greatly different from Ramaprasad’s definition of feedback (or formative feedback).
Formative assessment is concerned with how judgements about the quality of student responses (performance, pieces, or works) can be used to shape and improve the students’ competence by short-circuiting the randomness and inefficiency of trial-and-error learning. (SADLER, 1989, p. 120, emphasis added)
As Taras (2005) notes, the modal verb “can” shows that when the judgements are used this is formative assessment. If the judgement is not used, we are left with the judgement which is summative assessment. This leads us logically to examine the relationship between summative and formative assessment.
Relationship between summative, formative assessment and feedback
From the above, it is clear that making a judgement according to specific parameters is assessment, or summative assessment at that point in time. This assessment will produce feedback. The feedback may remain as an implicit judgement within the person’s head, otherwise, any manifestation or communication of this judgement will provide information. According to the definitions of assessment proposed in this paper, the parameters for making the judgement - that is the criteria, the standards and the goals - will be used to make the judgement and measure the short-fall from the ideal. Information produced will provide feedback which is required to improve the work. The use of this formative feedback by the learner will result in formative assessment and bring the work closer to the ideal.
Taras (2005) represents this relationship in the equation:
SA + feedback = FA (Summative assessment + feedback = formative assessment)
More precisely, and perhaps more accurately, a summative assessment will produce feedback which when used results in formative assessment:
SA → feedback
Feedback use = formative assessment
Far from showing summative and formative assessment as discrete items the above shows that the two are inseparably linked and that summative assessment is a necessary starting point for all assessment (TARAS, 2009).
Therefore, summative assessment must come first: it is necessary to assess the quality of the work before feedback can be given for the learner to use. Feedback cannot come from thin air: examining the work with implicit or explicit criteria and standards will result in judgements. What differentiates summative and formative assessment is that the latter is used by the learner to update and improve the work (or, at the minimum, to understand what would need to be done and how). Summative assessment does not exclude feedback (or Knowledge of Results) and even a number grade or physical reaction will provide information no matter how minimal. Often, in higher education, graded work is the main source of feedback (TARAS, 2006).
Using feedback is formative assessment, summative assessment can also and often does produce feedback which could be used. With formative assessment its use is mandatory, with
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summative assessment it is not. Because assessment is such a universal and constant process, with an infinite means of describing it, much of it is implicit, automatic and taken for granted. Perhaps we tend to forget the obvious and the basic premise of the process. Coffield and Edward (2009) illustrate how lack of engagement with the basic premises of ‘good’ assessment principles results in shoddy practice and research. I would add and “theory”.
Relationship between summative, formative assessment and self-assessment
We have examined the links between summative and formative assessment processes. This section will explore how self-assessment relates to them. The self-assessment literature considers it as being formative, indeed it is claimed to be the single most important aspect to support learning (BOUD, 1995; COWAN, 2006; BLACK et al., 2003). The literature discussed in this paper seems to make the same assumptions. However, both Scriven (1967) and Sadler (1989) implicitly demonstrate that self-assessment is in fact a summative process.
Unless entirely ignorant of one’s shortcomings as a judge of one’s own work, he (sic) is presumably engaged in field-testing the work while it is being developed, and in so doing he gets feedback on the basis of which he again produces revisions; this is of course formative evaluation. (SCRIVEN, 1967, p. 43).
From this citation, formative assessment is using feedback which summative assessment produces. However, since the same person is providing the feedback as is using it, it is self- assessment. Therefore, we can rationalise that producing feedback by the self is a summative process because it is not obligatory for the person to use this feedback: we can all admit to not updating to our best abilities due to time and logistical constraints (TARAS, 2003).
However, it could be argued that any production process involves ongoing and ad hoc feedback by the person concerned where this is integrated at a cognitive level in addition to the work. Indeed, Sadler’s mandatory use of self-assessment as an integral part of formative assessment envisages such a process. Taras (2009) argues that technically and theoretically, self-assessment is a summative process and that any feedback that learners provide themselves would also require utilisation for it to be considered formative. Whether this use should be demonstrable in an educational context would however overlook mental processing, which is where real learning and assessing take place.
Implications of assessment processes and functions
This paper has demonstrated that understanding and focusing on the assessment process is necessary to support and sustain good practice. Assessment is far too important and with huge consequences for participants for it to be dependent on ad-hoc, implicit processing. We are all aware of the inherently subjective aspects of all judgements; however, making the parameters, processes, and products explicit and transparent goes a long way towards producing ethical and equitable assessments which are acceptable to all concerned. Furthermore, as noted at the start of this paper, assessment is a necessary and integral part of learning. Since learning is dependent on, and a product of, the context, assessment too is context specific and an understanding of which needs to be negotiated among protagonists. Also, and critically, feedback is only such if it is understood, accepted and integrated by learners into future work.
Conclusion
The above concepts have significant implications for learning, teaching and assessing. Specifically, the three are interdependent and require cooperation between all concerned. In any context, be it peers in reviewing programmes or articles, or interviewing for jobs, tutors and learners assessing their own or others’ work or their own ideas and ideals in classroom interaction, the basic assessment process is the same. Sharing parameters, practices and contexts will go a long way towards an equitable understanding to reduce injustice which has long blighted assessment (BROADFOOT, 2008; STOBART, 2008). Given the high stakes of all assessment, whether summative or formative, we need the courage and knowledge to be explicit and transparent. This paper shows that a focus and separation of functions of summative and formative assessment is not necessarily the answer if the process is eclipsed and ignored.
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Received: 05/09/2009
Accepted: 11/03/2010