The document summarizes a study on the nitrate levels in Jakkur Lake in Bangalore, India. The lake receives treated sewage water from an inlet treatment plant and functions as a secondary wastewater treatment system and groundwater recharge basin. The study aims to use nitrate levels to analyze the flow of treated water through the lake and identify other potential sources of nitrates. Literature on wetlands and groundwater recharge is reviewed. Water samples from the lake and nearby wells are tested for nitrates, pH, and dissolved solids. The risks of groundwater recharge in the lake include potential pollution of wells from bacteria, viruses, parasites, and pharmaceuticals. Further investigation of soil structure and water retention time
A REVIEW ON RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION STUDIES USING SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING TE...ijiert bestjournal
Sedimentation in the reservoir gradually reduces it s storage capacity. By keeping a check on the sedimentation and by providing control measures for the same,the reservoir life can be maintained. Uj jani dam was constructed for irrigation,water supply an d power generation schemes. It lies in Solapur dist rict which is a drought prone area. This makes Ujjani a socially and economically significant project for t he state. In the present study,reservoir sedimentatio n for Ujjani reservoir is assessed for monitoring p urpose. Two techniques namely Satellite Remote Sensing Tech nique (SRST) and mathematical modeling using HEC RAS,were used in the study for estimating sedi mentation. Owing to advantages like low cost,time saving,less manpower requirement,accuracy in esti mation and capability of carrying out past surveys,the Satellite Remote Sensing Technique is gaining impor tance over the time consuming and high cost conventional hydrographic surveys. The water spread areas for different reservoir levels were delineat ed from the satellite images of Ujjain Reservoir using ARC GIS software. Volume between two water levels was calculated using prismoidul formula. The presen t volume of reservoir was compared with the initial volume during impoundment of reservoir. This gave t he loss of volume which was due to sedimentation.
NUMERICAL MODELLING OF BRINE DISPERSION IN SHALLOW COASTAL WATERSIAEME Publication
Fresh water is a limited finite resource, vital for the existence of every life on earth. It is becoming a scarce commodity. This is due to population growth, climatic changes with more frequent extreme events such as droughts and floods, increased water contamination of existing supplies, inefficient use of water etc. To overcome this scarcity, creation of fresh water from sea water by the process of desalination is a effective and reliable way. Hence desalination plants are being widely used in coastal areas.
Welcome to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of mechanical and civil engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in mechanical and civil engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
it includes major reservoir(dam). it includes defenition of dams.it includes its uses.it also includes major types . includes advantages and disadvatages. it icludes various ecological aspects related to the dam
RAIN WATER HARVESTING AROUND RAMTEK AREA (PERTAINING TO DUDHALA LAKE)ijiert bestjournal
Dudhala Lake is situated at a distance of 2 km from Ramtek bus stand in the north east direction. The project work mainly includes to stud y the present situation of Dudhala lake and suggest the feasible measures to increase the s torage capacity of Dudhala lake and give remedial measures so as to fulfill the water d emand in that area. The study of Dudhala Lake revealed the major problem faced by the people regarding the storage of lake as it was not getting filled instead of sufficient rainfa ll in Ramtek.
The type of handpump technology suitable for a particular area depends on the groundwater level, water quality and hydrogeological conditions. There are some areas like the costal belt in the southern part of Bangladesh, where the conventional shallow and deep tubewlls technologies are not successful due to the high salinity. Alternative water supply options are needed for those areas.
Aquifer mapping is a multidisciplinary scientific process wherein a combination of geological, hydrogeological, geophysical, hydrological, and quality data are integrated to characterize the quantity, quality and movement of ground water in aquifers.
Civil v-hydrology and irrigation engineering [10 cv55]-notesSuryenn Edwie Mon
WRE: UNIT–I:
Surface Water Hydrology: Water Resources in India, Hydrology in water Resources Planning –Precipitation – Types,
Measurement of rainfall, Average depth of rainfall over an area, Mean annual rainfall, consistency of rainfall record, Double
mass curve; Infiltration – Factors affecting and its determination, Evaporation and Evapo-Transpiration. Runoff – factors
affecting runoff, methods of determination of runoff, stream gauging.
UNIT-II:
Hydrograph analysis: Base flow separation, Unit Hydrograph – Hydrograph of different durations, applications of unit
hydrograph, S-hydrograph, Flood Forecasting Techniques.
Ground Water Hydrology: Mechanics of interstitial flow, definitions, sub surface distribution of water, types of aquifers,
ground water movement, Darcy’s law, Well hydraulics – steady flow into wells in Un-confined and confined aquifers,
determination of hydraulic properties of aquifer, pumping test and recuperation test methods for determination of yield of
open well.
UNIT-III:
Reservoir Planning: Types of reservoir investigations for reservoir planning, selection of site for a reservoir, zones of
storage in a reservoir, reservoir yield, mass curve and demand curve, determination of reservoir capacity, yield from a
reservoir of given capacity, operating schedules, guide curve for reservoir operation, apportionment of total cost of a multi
purpose project, reservoir sedimentation, control of reservoir sedimentation, useful life of a reservoir.
UNIT-IV:
Irrigation: Definition of irrigation, types of irrigation systems – direct and indirect, lift and inundation irrigation system,
methods of irrigation – surface and sprinkler methods, drip irrigation, Soil moisture constants, depth of water held by soil in
root zone. Water requirements of crops, Duty, Delta, Base period and their relationship, crop seasons, factors affecting duty
and methods of improving duty, consumptive use of water, determination of canal capacities for cropping patterns.
UNIT-V:
Canal Systems: Classification of irrigation canals – canal alignment, design of unlined canals, regime theories – Kennedy’s
and lacey’s theories, tractive - force method, design problems – balancing depth of canal.
Assessment, analysis and study of encroachments and change in natural water f...eSAT Journals
Abstract Advancements in study and assessment of changing land use patterns using modern techniques like use of satellite data is inevitable today owing to high accuracy and ease of its accessibility to researchers. In this study, satellite images of over last ten years have been precisely used to analyze the changes in natural water flow and geographic characteristics of world famous Dal Lake in state of Jammu & Kashmir arising due uncontrolled human expansion and destruction of natural lake topography. The lake currently in advanced stages of eutrophication has been rapidly shrinking in its area at an alarming rate over last five decades. Major contributors to such changes are the direct or indirect discharge of untreated wastes from Srinagar city into water body through numerous sewer lines and uncontrolled land filling by local inhabitants in interiors of lake to meet their growing needs of urbanization and need for more agricultural land. Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen derived from growth of vegetation within the lake and sewage have drastically altered water quality parameters and dramatically disrupted the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of lake from years; making the water obtained from lake unfit for any kind of consumption or aquatic life. Uncontrolled pollution and wide encroachments laden with exponential increase of sewage discharges have led to severe changes in land use pattern in interiors of the lake which is the main source of destruction of natural physiognomies of lake and gradual choking up of its water sources. All this has compounded into complete breakdown of drainage mechanism of the Lake with a threat of floods in Lake Catchment unavoidable in coming time. Keywords: Sewage, Eutrophication, Catchment, Topography, Ecology
Rain Water Harvesting and Impact of Microbial Pollutants on Ground Water Rese...IJERA Editor
Developing countries are under heavy stress due to continuous depletion of ground water reserves. The urban
areas are developing and growing very fast due to population growth, increase in commercial and trade
activities, national and international tourism development as trade. The local migration of rural population due
to better job opportunities. Civic amenities are also the reason for population explosion in urban areas and thus
there is increase in the demand of basic needs like water, shelter and power. Due to the overall consumption of
water in urban and rural areas which has increased many fold in the recent past, causing depletion of water subsurface
reserves due to difference in natural recharge of reservoirs and the corresponding water demand. The
ground water is an integral part of the environment and there has been a lack of adequate attention to water
conservation, water use and reuse, ground water recharge, and ecosystem sustainability. To meet with the
challenge of under ground water shortage, lowering level of water table, efforts are being made to recharge the
aquifer system by the Rain Water Harvesting (R.W.H.). This noble act needs serious thought and follow up to
achieve the aim of recharging ground water free from pollutants like pesticide, bacteria and seepage causing
infection and pollution of the existing pure source of potable water. A study has therefore undertaken to assess
the possible bacterial intrusion through the rain water penetration at the deeper water bearing aquifers.
A REVIEW ON RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION STUDIES USING SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING TE...ijiert bestjournal
Sedimentation in the reservoir gradually reduces it s storage capacity. By keeping a check on the sedimentation and by providing control measures for the same,the reservoir life can be maintained. Uj jani dam was constructed for irrigation,water supply an d power generation schemes. It lies in Solapur dist rict which is a drought prone area. This makes Ujjani a socially and economically significant project for t he state. In the present study,reservoir sedimentatio n for Ujjani reservoir is assessed for monitoring p urpose. Two techniques namely Satellite Remote Sensing Tech nique (SRST) and mathematical modeling using HEC RAS,were used in the study for estimating sedi mentation. Owing to advantages like low cost,time saving,less manpower requirement,accuracy in esti mation and capability of carrying out past surveys,the Satellite Remote Sensing Technique is gaining impor tance over the time consuming and high cost conventional hydrographic surveys. The water spread areas for different reservoir levels were delineat ed from the satellite images of Ujjain Reservoir using ARC GIS software. Volume between two water levels was calculated using prismoidul formula. The presen t volume of reservoir was compared with the initial volume during impoundment of reservoir. This gave t he loss of volume which was due to sedimentation.
NUMERICAL MODELLING OF BRINE DISPERSION IN SHALLOW COASTAL WATERSIAEME Publication
Fresh water is a limited finite resource, vital for the existence of every life on earth. It is becoming a scarce commodity. This is due to population growth, climatic changes with more frequent extreme events such as droughts and floods, increased water contamination of existing supplies, inefficient use of water etc. To overcome this scarcity, creation of fresh water from sea water by the process of desalination is a effective and reliable way. Hence desalination plants are being widely used in coastal areas.
Welcome to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of mechanical and civil engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in mechanical and civil engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
it includes major reservoir(dam). it includes defenition of dams.it includes its uses.it also includes major types . includes advantages and disadvatages. it icludes various ecological aspects related to the dam
RAIN WATER HARVESTING AROUND RAMTEK AREA (PERTAINING TO DUDHALA LAKE)ijiert bestjournal
Dudhala Lake is situated at a distance of 2 km from Ramtek bus stand in the north east direction. The project work mainly includes to stud y the present situation of Dudhala lake and suggest the feasible measures to increase the s torage capacity of Dudhala lake and give remedial measures so as to fulfill the water d emand in that area. The study of Dudhala Lake revealed the major problem faced by the people regarding the storage of lake as it was not getting filled instead of sufficient rainfa ll in Ramtek.
The type of handpump technology suitable for a particular area depends on the groundwater level, water quality and hydrogeological conditions. There are some areas like the costal belt in the southern part of Bangladesh, where the conventional shallow and deep tubewlls technologies are not successful due to the high salinity. Alternative water supply options are needed for those areas.
Aquifer mapping is a multidisciplinary scientific process wherein a combination of geological, hydrogeological, geophysical, hydrological, and quality data are integrated to characterize the quantity, quality and movement of ground water in aquifers.
Civil v-hydrology and irrigation engineering [10 cv55]-notesSuryenn Edwie Mon
WRE: UNIT–I:
Surface Water Hydrology: Water Resources in India, Hydrology in water Resources Planning –Precipitation – Types,
Measurement of rainfall, Average depth of rainfall over an area, Mean annual rainfall, consistency of rainfall record, Double
mass curve; Infiltration – Factors affecting and its determination, Evaporation and Evapo-Transpiration. Runoff – factors
affecting runoff, methods of determination of runoff, stream gauging.
UNIT-II:
Hydrograph analysis: Base flow separation, Unit Hydrograph – Hydrograph of different durations, applications of unit
hydrograph, S-hydrograph, Flood Forecasting Techniques.
Ground Water Hydrology: Mechanics of interstitial flow, definitions, sub surface distribution of water, types of aquifers,
ground water movement, Darcy’s law, Well hydraulics – steady flow into wells in Un-confined and confined aquifers,
determination of hydraulic properties of aquifer, pumping test and recuperation test methods for determination of yield of
open well.
UNIT-III:
Reservoir Planning: Types of reservoir investigations for reservoir planning, selection of site for a reservoir, zones of
storage in a reservoir, reservoir yield, mass curve and demand curve, determination of reservoir capacity, yield from a
reservoir of given capacity, operating schedules, guide curve for reservoir operation, apportionment of total cost of a multi
purpose project, reservoir sedimentation, control of reservoir sedimentation, useful life of a reservoir.
UNIT-IV:
Irrigation: Definition of irrigation, types of irrigation systems – direct and indirect, lift and inundation irrigation system,
methods of irrigation – surface and sprinkler methods, drip irrigation, Soil moisture constants, depth of water held by soil in
root zone. Water requirements of crops, Duty, Delta, Base period and their relationship, crop seasons, factors affecting duty
and methods of improving duty, consumptive use of water, determination of canal capacities for cropping patterns.
UNIT-V:
Canal Systems: Classification of irrigation canals – canal alignment, design of unlined canals, regime theories – Kennedy’s
and lacey’s theories, tractive - force method, design problems – balancing depth of canal.
Assessment, analysis and study of encroachments and change in natural water f...eSAT Journals
Abstract Advancements in study and assessment of changing land use patterns using modern techniques like use of satellite data is inevitable today owing to high accuracy and ease of its accessibility to researchers. In this study, satellite images of over last ten years have been precisely used to analyze the changes in natural water flow and geographic characteristics of world famous Dal Lake in state of Jammu & Kashmir arising due uncontrolled human expansion and destruction of natural lake topography. The lake currently in advanced stages of eutrophication has been rapidly shrinking in its area at an alarming rate over last five decades. Major contributors to such changes are the direct or indirect discharge of untreated wastes from Srinagar city into water body through numerous sewer lines and uncontrolled land filling by local inhabitants in interiors of lake to meet their growing needs of urbanization and need for more agricultural land. Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen derived from growth of vegetation within the lake and sewage have drastically altered water quality parameters and dramatically disrupted the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of lake from years; making the water obtained from lake unfit for any kind of consumption or aquatic life. Uncontrolled pollution and wide encroachments laden with exponential increase of sewage discharges have led to severe changes in land use pattern in interiors of the lake which is the main source of destruction of natural physiognomies of lake and gradual choking up of its water sources. All this has compounded into complete breakdown of drainage mechanism of the Lake with a threat of floods in Lake Catchment unavoidable in coming time. Keywords: Sewage, Eutrophication, Catchment, Topography, Ecology
Rain Water Harvesting and Impact of Microbial Pollutants on Ground Water Rese...IJERA Editor
Developing countries are under heavy stress due to continuous depletion of ground water reserves. The urban
areas are developing and growing very fast due to population growth, increase in commercial and trade
activities, national and international tourism development as trade. The local migration of rural population due
to better job opportunities. Civic amenities are also the reason for population explosion in urban areas and thus
there is increase in the demand of basic needs like water, shelter and power. Due to the overall consumption of
water in urban and rural areas which has increased many fold in the recent past, causing depletion of water subsurface
reserves due to difference in natural recharge of reservoirs and the corresponding water demand. The
ground water is an integral part of the environment and there has been a lack of adequate attention to water
conservation, water use and reuse, ground water recharge, and ecosystem sustainability. To meet with the
challenge of under ground water shortage, lowering level of water table, efforts are being made to recharge the
aquifer system by the Rain Water Harvesting (R.W.H.). This noble act needs serious thought and follow up to
achieve the aim of recharging ground water free from pollutants like pesticide, bacteria and seepage causing
infection and pollution of the existing pure source of potable water. A study has therefore undertaken to assess
the possible bacterial intrusion through the rain water penetration at the deeper water bearing aquifers.
Hydrodynamics and Morphological Changes Numerical Model of the Jeneberang Est...AM Publications
Jeneberang Estuary, located south of Makassar, Indonesia, is one of the largest and most important river in Sulawesi. In this paper, a numerical model has recently been developed hydrodynamic and morphological evolution of the downstream rubber dam of the Jeneberang Estuary. The hydrodynamic model is derived from the hydro static assumption and Boussinesq approximation. A high-resolution computational grid was generated covering the Jeneberang estuary. The model was run with time driven by tidal forcing at the ocean boundary and river hydro graph at the upstream. The observed tidal data and hydrography were accessible for the set-up of the model. Hydrodynamic simulations have been performed and computed water levels were compared to observations of existing water level along the estuary from DISHIDRO data. For the period of a neap-spring-neap cycle, the model settings determined in the calibration process are verified satisfactions with respect to water level measurements. Good agreement was shown between model results and observed temporal and spatial variations in water elevation and currents, in the Jeneberang Estuary. The suspended sediments were generally transported from the Jeneberang River towards the Makassar Strait when overflow discharge through the Jeneberang Rubber Dam. Morphology change at the Jeneberang Estuary delta is affected by many factors, including tide, waves, river flows and sediment
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
Cubbon Park recharge wells completion reportbiometrust
Biome Trust in collaboration with Friends of Lakes facilitated the digging of 73 recharge wells and rejuvenation of 2 ponds in Cubbon Park with funding support from India Cares.
Perspective Study on Ground Water in East Godavari District of Andhra Pradeshiosrjce
This article is a deal with the study of East Godavari District There is a need for study the ground
water in the district. The information helps the planners, hydrologists, Geologists, Geographers and researchers
for better planning and management of underground water data whenever it is required. So for this a study is
made on the basis of secondary data form internet and water board survey reports from three decades, This
helps in decision making based on the information of ground water as a resource in East Godavari District. A
series of information has been considered and highlighted for the uses.
Impact of Building Dam on River Ecosystem and Its Preventive Measures╚»Śăńğĩť Βăńĩķ«╝
To study the effects of dam construction to the river ecosystem.
To formulate dam running scheme that benefits eco-environment.
To review a case-study: Farakka Barrage.
A Study on the Investigation of Some Quality Parameters of Atikhisar Dam Lake...ijtsrd
This study was carried out seasonally to determine some nutrient load concentrations in the Atikhisar Dam Lake, which provides drinking water to the city center of Çanakkale and also serves the purpose of protection from floods. For this purpose, water samples were taken from 3 sampling points in Atikhisar Dam Lake. 5 parameters nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, phosphate and suspended solids were examined in the water samples taken. At the end of the study, it is understood that the dam has a good water quality and there is no significant pollution problem. To ensure the sustainability of water resources, dam waters, which contain a significant part of natural resources, should be monitored regularly. Pinar Yildirim "A Study on the Investigation of Some Quality Parameters of Atikhisar Dam Lake in Çanakkale" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-7 , December 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52539.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/52539/a-study-on-the-investigation-of-some-quality-parameters-of-atikhisar-dam-lake-in-çanakkale/pinar-yildirim
ASSESSMENT OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT IN CANAANLAND, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.O...Felix Oginni
Effluent from a sewage treatment plant in Covenant University, Canaanland is made to pass through a series of constructed wetland before discharging into a gully that drains into River Iju (also known as Atuara). This river is used as a source of drinking water and also provides food in form of fish for hundreds of thousands of people downstream and eventually enters the lagoon, some 60km away. Effectiveness and adequacy of the wastewater treatment facility in place was assessed in order to improve sanitation within this watershed, thereby alleviating environmental challenges in this coastal region of Nigeria. Waste water is gravity drained to the southwest portion of the campus where the solid is removed and the liquid is allowed to flow through six sets of constructed wetlands, each with four chambers. Within each chamber are water hyacinth plants put in place to remove nutrients from the waster water.
A quick survey of the facility shows the system to be effective in reducing and removing solids and dissolved solids from the waste water. The pH ranged between 6.6 and 6.8, conductivity from 530 to 600, and total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 360 – 400 ppm. The data obtained indicate that some modifications need to be made as the waste water treatment system is not very efficient in reducing the amount of TDS and nutrients. The flow rate is considered to be very high from cell to cell, thereby not allowing time for the plants and microbes to reduce the TDS. It is suggested that some method be devised to slow down the flow rate to allow the plants and microbes to work on reducing the TDS. Parameters also also considered included DO, E. Coli. Nitrate and Phosphates.
Groundwater analysis in the vicinity of nag rivereSAT Journals
Abstract The objective of this research studies is to analyse the water and waste water characteristics of Nag river and groundwater quality in the vicinity of the river. Nag River, which serves as the tributary of the Kanhan River originates in the hills to the west of Nagpur and flows in a serpentine course past Nagpur City, joining the main river at Saongi in the east of the District. Today most of the Nagpur sewage is let into Nag River tributaries without any sufficient treatments, which includes wastes, hazardous in nature of this river which crosses the city which has population of about 50 lakh, which makes the river extremely polluted. The River which titled the city is now struggling for its own existence. For the analysis purpose of the river, by whose name lots of people swear as their mother, has been divided into five areas based on the occupancy .The values from the studies were found to be problematic in the vicinity and nearby area. In the present study, groundwater samples of monsoon, winter and summer season of the selected five different zones of the city were taken for the investigation and analyzed for various parameters with regard to drinking water standards and assessed for their suitability for human consumption. The results of ground water direct us to the fact that the pollution in Nag river has its effect on the ground water as well as the Water Quality Index (WQI) which reflect a composite influence of contributing factors on the quality of water for any water system Keywords: Water & Waste Water Quality, Nag River and Nagpur, groundwater, physico-chemical characteristics, pollution, water quality index
A lecture on 18th March 2017 on issues around 'Water and Children' in the Child Rights Circle monthly lecture series at Vijaya Teachers Training College, Jayangara, Bengaluru. The third lecture in the series.
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Welocme to ViralQR, your best QR code generator.ViralQR
Welcome to ViralQR, your best QR code generator available on the market!
At ViralQR, we design static and dynamic QR codes. Our mission is to make business operations easier and customer engagement more powerful through the use of QR technology. Be it a small-scale business or a huge enterprise, our easy-to-use platform provides multiple choices that can be tailored according to your company's branding and marketing strategies.
Our Vision
We are here to make the process of creating QR codes easy and smooth, thus enhancing customer interaction and making business more fluid. We very strongly believe in the ability of QR codes to change the world for businesses in their interaction with customers and are set on making that technology accessible and usable far and wide.
Our Achievements
Ever since its inception, we have successfully served many clients by offering QR codes in their marketing, service delivery, and collection of feedback across various industries. Our platform has been recognized for its ease of use and amazing features, which helped a business to make QR codes.
Our Services
At ViralQR, here is a comprehensive suite of services that caters to your very needs:
Static QR Codes: Create free static QR codes. These QR codes are able to store significant information such as URLs, vCards, plain text, emails and SMS, Wi-Fi credentials, and Bitcoin addresses.
Dynamic QR codes: These also have all the advanced features but are subscription-based. They can directly link to PDF files, images, micro-landing pages, social accounts, review forms, business pages, and applications. In addition, they can be branded with CTAs, frames, patterns, colors, and logos to enhance your branding.
Pricing and Packages
Additionally, there is a 14-day free offer to ViralQR, which is an exceptional opportunity for new users to take a feel of this platform. One can easily subscribe from there and experience the full dynamic of using QR codes. The subscription plans are not only meant for business; they are priced very flexibly so that literally every business could afford to benefit from our service.
Why choose us?
ViralQR will provide services for marketing, advertising, catering, retail, and the like. The QR codes can be posted on fliers, packaging, merchandise, and banners, as well as to substitute for cash and cards in a restaurant or coffee shop. With QR codes integrated into your business, improve customer engagement and streamline operations.
Comprehensive Analytics
Subscribers of ViralQR receive detailed analytics and tracking tools in light of having a view of the core values of QR code performance. Our analytics dashboard shows aggregate views and unique views, as well as detailed information about each impression, including time, device, browser, and estimated location by city and country.
So, thank you for choosing ViralQR; we have an offer of nothing but the best in terms of QR code services to meet business diversity!
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !KatiaHIMEUR1
Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
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Jakkur lake as a groundwater charger
1. UPTEC W13
Minor field study 15hp
March 2013
Groundwater recharge in
Jakkur Lake, Bangalore
Possibilities and risks of sewage water reuse
Pia Sjöholm
2. 2
Index
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Referat................................................................................................................................................. 3
Preface................................................................................................................................................. 4
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Aim...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Background ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Present water infrastructure in Bangalore ....................................................................................... 6
An overview on Jakkur Lake........................................................................................................... 7
Wetlands for sustainable water use ................................................................................................. 8
Nitrates in water ............................................................................................................................ 12
Material and methods........................................................................................................................ 14
Scope of study ............................................................................................................................... 14
Testing procedure.......................................................................................................................... 15
Research on Jakkur Lake............................................................................................................... 16
Results............................................................................................................................................... 16
Discussion ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 19
References ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Written references ......................................................................................................................... 21
Internet references......................................................................................................................... 21
Personal communications.............................................................................................................. 23
3. 3
Abstract
The aim of this project is to study the nitrate levels of the treated water flowing into Jakkur Lake in
Bangalore, from the treatment plant situated at the inlet to the lake, and thereby value the function of
the lake as a secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment as well as an infiltration basin. Obtained
nitrate levels are used as indicators to study the wastewater flow in the lake, and to find other possible
inflows of sewage which can affect the lakes’ total treatment efficiency. A literature study is done on
wetlands and on groundwater recharge through infiltration basins, and the possibility of recharging
groundwater below Jakkur Lake is evaluated. Water samples are collected around and in the lake and
the samples are tested for nitrate, pH and total dissolved solids. Extra focus is put on research on
nitrates in water.
The risks of groundwater recharge in Jakkur Lake include pollution of wells by bacteria, viruses,
parasites and traces of medicine. Further geotechnical investigations need to be done mainly on the
soil structure under and around the lake, and studies need to be done on the retention time of the water
in the lake. The technical limitations such as fluctuations in efficiency and pollutant migration must be
minimized, which initially could be done by building a constructed wetland and controlling the inflow
to the lake.
Keywords: Ecology, environmental engineering, water treatment, water supply, water shortage
Referat
I detta projekt studeras nitrathalterna i sjön Jakkur i norra Bangalore, som består av en naturlig
våtmark samt en infiltrationsbassäng. Nitrathalter mäts dels i det behandlade avloppsvattnet som
flödar till sjön från avloppsreningsverket vid sjöns inlopp, dels i sjön och i närliggande brunnar. Dessa
värden används som indikatorer på avloppsvattnets flödesväg samt för att hitta övriga flöden av
avloppsvatten in till sjön. Baserat på fältstudier och litteraturstudier görs en bedömning av huruvida
sjön Jakkur är lämplig för sekundär och tertiär behandling av renat avloppsvatten. Litteraturstudier
görs med fokus på reningsprocesser i våtmarker och infiltrationsbassänger. Tagna vattenprover
analyseras även för pH-värde och TDS-halt. Extra fokus läggs på litteraturstudier av biokemiska
processer för nitrat i vatten.
Riskerna med infiltration av renat avloppsvatten inkluderar föroreningar i grundvattnet av bakterier,
virus, parasiter samt medicinrester. För att kunna utvärdera reningsprocesserna i marken behöver fler
marktekniska undersökningar utföras både under och omkring sjön. Vidare behöver vattnets
uppehållstid i sjön undersökas. De tekniska begränsningarna i form av fluktuationer i effektivitet hos
våtmark och infiltrationsbassäng bör minimeras, vilket kan inledas genom att bygga en konstgjord
våtmark och kontrollera inflödet av avloppsvatten in till sjön.
5. 5
Introduction
As one of India’s fastest growing cities, Bangalore experiences severe problems with supporting
enough amounts of water to the citizens. The natural percolation of rainwater is not enough to balance
the groundwater level because of the amounts of groundwater being pumped up through private and
municipal wells (Department of Mines and Geology 2011). There are no rivers or large natural lakes
close to the city. To meet the city’s water demand, water is pumped from the river of Cauvery, situated
about 100 kilometers southwest of Bangalore. As access to municipal water is not always reliable or
available, a huge amount of the population relies on private wells. Because of the many wells, the
groundwater table in the city centre is radically changing and in many areas wells have to be drilled
deeper after a few years because of a sinking groundwater table. Many wells reach down as far as 200
meters in order to reach deeper aquifers, while shallow wells are drying up (Government of India
2008). A method to restore the groundwater table and thereby prevent it from sinking further is to
release treated sewage water back into the ground through an infiltration basin. Through natural
processes in the ground, the treated water will be cleaned from various harmful elements, and by time
reach the groundwater table.
Aim
The aim of this project is to study the nitrate levels of the treated water flowing through Jakkur Lake
(Figure 1) from the treatment plant situated at the inlet, and thereby value the function of the lake as a
wastewater treatment and a groundwater recharging system. To be able to follow the flow of the
treated water from the treatment plant situated in the lakes’ inlet, high levels of nitrate are used as an
indicator. Obtained nitrate levels are used for studying the wastewater flow in the lake, and to find
other possible sources of nitrate which can affect the lakes’ total treatment efficiency. A literature
Figure 1: Jakkur Lake. In front are water hyacinths covering
the shore. In the background are new residential buildings.
(Photo: P. Sjöholm)
6. 6
study is done on groundwater recharge and the possibilities of recharging groundwater below Jakkur
Lake are evaluated.
Background
Bangalore is traditionally a city of gardens, irrigation lakes and open wells. Before the huge increase
of population, starting in the 1960’s, percolation by rain was enough to balance the groundwater level
and supply the citizens with water (Das, 2011). For irrigation purposes many reservoirs, locally called
tanks, were built in the city during the last century. The remaining tanks are now used for storing
drinking water, but most of them have recently been transferred into other kinds of infrastructure such
as bus stations and sport arenas.
In the 1960’s there were 280 tanks in Bangalore, of which 141 of were big enough to be considered
lakes. At this time, the population started growing rapidly and in 1971 the population reached 1.7
million. Since then the population has grown about five times its size and was estimated to 8.4 million
in 2011. Of the 141 original tanks and lakes, only 67 are remaining. The IT-industry has bloomed and
industrial areas have developed. In the 1970’s, there was already a need for other sources of drinking
water, and therefore the Cauvery River was tapped for the first time. Today Bangalore is dependent on
both a high amount of private wells and the municipal pipe system tapping Cauvery.
Present water infrastructure in Bangalore
The estimated demand of water to the greater Bangalore area is around 1200 million liters per day,
industrial needs excluded (Das 2011). 870 million liters per day is supplied by the municipal BWSSB,
Bangalore Water Supply and Sewage Board. This leaves a shortfall of 330 million liters per day,
which comes from groundwater sources like private wells. When the industrial needs of approximately
60 million liters per day are included, as well as leakages up to 20% from the BWSSB-system, there is
an enormous shortage of water in Bangalore. The shortage is estimated up to 400 million liters per
day.
This shortage creates an uncertainty among the citizens which is seen e.g. as new houses are built.
Most customers prefer to bore a private well before constructing the house, to ensure their supply of
water. These wells are expensive to drill and are only affordable for people of a certain living standard.
It is also common that a neighborhood share wells. The origin of the water in the wells is often not
known, and therefore nothing is known about potential sources of pollution. Different types of
domestic water purifiers, designed with techniques such as reverse osmosis and UV light, are often
used to clean the water before using it.
7. 7
In the city center, the level of the groundwater is rising due to leaking pipes and uncollected sewage.
At the same time the ground water level is sinking in the outskirts of Bangalore (Vishwanath 2012).
Wells have to be dug lower and a lot of households are not connected to the common water and
wastewater pipe system. Since 2009, rainwater harvesting is mandatory for certain sites. The minimum
requirement includes rainwater storage and ground recharge, which is done by leading rainwater to an
open well.
An overview of Jakkur Lake
Jakkur Lake includes a wetland and a lake. The lake itself is manmade and around 200 years old. It
was initially built to store rainwater. The main source of water today is treated sewage water from the
treatment plant, and storm water. The flow has an assumed direction starting from the treatment plant
in the north flowing towards the outlet in the south of the lake, see figure 2. Since this is a manmade
lake it is likely not to be any groundwater flow into the lake at all, instead water is expected to flow
downwards and sidewise into the ground. This flow will be further explained in the chapter
“Groundwater recharge”. Around the lake are different kinds of human activity, such as banana
plantations, slums, a golf course, and newly built residential buildings. The village of Jakkur is
situated some hundred meters south west of the lake.
Figure 2: Jakkur Lake with treatment plant, wetland and outlet marked (Google maps 2013)
8. 8
Wetlands for sustainable water use
Technical aspects of wetlands
One of the most common natural wastewater treatment systems is wetlands. Wetlands play a number
of roles in the environment such as water purification and flood control, and remove contaminants by
physical, chemical, and biological processes (Garcia et al. 2010). A simplified sketch of a constructed
wetland with a horizontal flow is shown in figure 5.
Figure 5: A sketch of a constructed wetland with a horizontal flow through filters, vegetation, and towards a specific
outlet (LAND. 2009).
When sewage is released into an environment containing living microfauna and oxygen, a series of
actions will take place. Among these actions is sedimentation, virus deactivation by UV-light, plant
uptake of nutrients and bacteria competition amongst each other. Through contact with biofilms, plant
roots and rhizomes, processes like nitrification, ammonification and plant uptake will decrease the
nitrate level in the wastewater (Garcia et al. 2010). In the oxygen free parts of the sediment,
denitrification will occur. As natural groundwater is characterized by low amounts of organic material,
particles, metals, dissolved salts and microorganisms, these are the qualities that the system must
fulfill.
Depending on the hydrology at the location, the flow through the wetland will either be horizontal or
vertical or both. Vertical systems produce nitrified effluents, while horizontal systems often have very
limited nitrification capabilities. In practice, these two types of systems are often combined to form
hybrid wetlands, which provide higher removal efficiency.
To evaluate the system in Jakkur Lake for wastewater treatment, the flow of the water has to be
known. This includes direction of the flow, level of the groundwater around the lake, volume of the
lake, speed of the flow, sizes and numbers of inlets and outlets as well as knowledge about aquifers
below and around the lake. The soil around the lake should be investigated and potential sources of
9. 9
pollution such as old landfills must be removed. It is always difficult to control the flow of the water in
a natural system; therefore constructed wetlands are often used instead of natural ones. In a
constructed wetland the flow is controlled as well as the location of different layers of filters
consisting of fine-grained fractions. The function of these filters is to maximize the area of biofilm that
the wastewater passes and thereby increase the microbial inactivation, but also to slow down the flow
to increase sedimentation. The hydraulic retention time is an important parameter that describes how
efficient nitrification, sedimentation, metal removal and microorganism reduction processes are
(Vymazal, Kröpfelová. 2009). Darcy's Law can be applied to describe the flow through a medium if
the hydraulic potential and porosity of the ground are known, such as a flow through filters in a
wetland.
As natural wetland systems in urban environments are sensitive and exposed, water cleaned by this
method can never be guaranteed to be potable. The quality will differ depending on natural causes.
Parameters suitable to monitor in a wetland are plant biomass, oxidation–reduction potential, chemical
oxygen demand, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, ammonia, nitrate, phosphates and coliform
bacteria.
Groundwater recharge through an infiltration basin
Infiltration basins have many advantages, such as decreasing storm water peak flows, reducing
pollution of surface waters and recharging groundwater. The basics of groundwater recharge are to
release water onto the ground or into an infiltration basin, letting the water pass downwards through
filters of different kinds, and finally let it reach and refill the groundwater (WRD. 2013). For this to
function, it is important to understand and monitor the flow of the water. In a natural system the water
flows as in figure 6. Groundwater flows into the ground and slowly towards a well or discharge area.
Figure 6: Groundwater flow in a natural system (Wikimedia Commons. 2005)
Since Jakkur Lake is a manmade lake, the water will flow in a different manner than it would in a
natural lake. Jakkur Lake was initially built to store rainwater and the hydraulic potential is likely to
vary between flooding and dry periods. The flow depends on the hydraulic potential in the ground and
will flow from higher to lower potential (Hendriks 2009). Because of variation in hydraulic potential,
10. 10
the flow direction from the lake to the groundwater is likely to vary between positive and negative. A
way to monitor the potential is to compare the groundwater level in wells situated around the lake, to
the water surface of the lake. The hydraulic conductivity of the ground, which depends on soil
structure, will affect the flow of the water between the ground and the lake.
Because of the episodic nature of storm water runoff, combined with the large volume of water
accumulated by urban storm water systems, infiltration and groundwater recharge processes beneath a
storm water infiltration basin can occur rapidly depending on the hydrogeological conditions
(O'Reilly, Chang, Wanielista. 2012). These factors result in a dynamic groundwater system beneath a
storm water infiltration basin that is continuously adjusting to changing inputs, and such conditions
can result in fluctuations in the groundwater quality. By adding treated sewage water to the infiltration
basin, the quality of the recharged groundwater is very difficult to control.
Two major problems are encountered related to infiltration basins: clogging of the system and an
eventual pollution of soil and groundwater (Le Coustumer et al. 2007). It has been shown that the top
soil layer is an efficient pollutant barrier but pollutant migration is still an issue.
If treated sewage water is released into an aquifer, it will affect wells situated downstream in the same
aquifer. If the movement of the water through the ground can be traced, affected wells can be mapped.
This is an important step when aiming for implementing the system of infiltration basins on a larger
scale.
Jakkur Lake is about 50 ha. Studies made in another local lake, Madivala, resulted in an estimated 20
liters of water percolating per square meter and day (Vishwanath 2012). In this number, evaporation is
included. By multiplying these numbers it shows that about 10 million liters per day can percolate
from Jakkur Lake under the right conditions such as a large hydraulic potential allowing water to
percolate.
Risks in reusing treated sewage water
When treated sewage water flows into an ecosystem, high amounts of natural and unnatural elements
will be released into the system. Human health risks in sewage are nitrate, bacteria, parasites, viruses,
traces of medicines and heavy metals like cadmium, lead and copper. Medicines and hormones are
most likely to end up in the drinking water since they are designed to pass through natural barriers, but
will also end up in sediment and affect fish. Heavy metals come with sewage, air pollutants and storm
water and will end up in the sediments, plants and fish. During an epidemic caused by e.g. cholera
bacteria, sewage traces in drinking water is the largest risk factor because of the transport of bacteria.
It is also notable that some antibiotics such as quinolones and tetracycline can remain active for long
11. 11
time periods and will gather in the sediments, increasing the risk of multi resistant bacteria to form
(Mantecón et al. 2011).
Viral infections spread by water are e.g. SARS, hepatitis A, polio and polyomavirus infections.
Among diseases caused by water spread bacteria can be mentioned typhoid fever, dysentery,
legionnaires’ disease and infections caused by salmonella bacteria (Wikipedia. 2012).
The faecal coliform bacteria inactivation in a sub-surface constructed wetland usually ranges between
1.25 and 2.5 log units. It must be taken into account that the concentration of coliform bacteria in
wastewater is affected by daily fluctuations, so the highest concentration in the influent water will not
necessarily coincide with the highest concentration in the effluent water (Garcia et al. 2010). Coliform
bacteria can be used as an indicator of the reduction of other bacteria. The type of wetland chosen has
a high impact on the reduction rate and it is important to keep in mind that the wetland in Jakkur Lake
is not a constructed wetland but lacks many crucial parts of a constructed wetland such as filters and a
controlled flow. The efficiency will be lower than for a constructed wetland.
Figure 7: Children helping out with sample nr. 4 (Photo: P. Sjöholm)
Jakkur Lake is used by children for swimming and playing. The children seen in figure 7, helping out
with sample nr. 4, claimed that there are faeces in the water downstreams and therefor they choose to
swim close to the treatment plant instead.
Benefits of reusing sewage water
The risks associated with sewage contamination in wells must be weighted towards the economical,
ecological, energy-saving and sustainable benefits gained. In comparison to transporting water in pipes
from the Cauvery River, the benefits are huge. Costs are minimal, water losses are minimal, the bird
life benefits from the wetland, and no energy input is needed to refill the wells. It is an ideal solution
from all stand points except health risks and pollution by heavy metals. These risks should be
compared to the same risks in the alternatives, as an example might water pipes under low pressure
take in pollutants through leaks. It is proved to be fecal coliform bacteria, up to around 160 per 100
12. 12
ml, in the water supplied by pipes in many central areas of Bangalore (ATREE 2012). There is no
Indian standard for the amount of fecal coliform bacteria in drinking water, but the Indian standard for
E.coliform bacteria in drinking water is zero. The WHO standard for fecal coliform bacteria in
drinking water is zero.
Prevention of sewage contamination of wells
The initial way to prevent wells from being affected by sewage is distance or a non-leaking
construction of wells reaching unaffected deeper aquifers. The further the distance from the wetland to
the well, the longer time harmful elements will be degraded.
Reduction of pollutants can be modified by manipulating infiltration time, distance between well and
wetland, pre-filtering, retention time of the water in the wetland, and annual maintenance of the
wetland bottoms. Further the water can be treated with domestic water purifiers.
Nitrate in water
A relatively easy way to discover sewage contamination is by testing the level of nitrate in the water.
Nitrate is easier to detect than e.g. microorganisms. Though nitrate itself is not part of the largest
contamination risks considering human health, it can function as an indicator of sewage
contamination.
Nitrates in groundwater and unmanaged leakages
The groundwater structure of Bangalore is complicated with aquifers extending beyond the boundaries
of the groundwater level. There might be several aquifers on top of each other with impermeable or
semi permeable layers in between. Shallow wells are therefore in general more affected by human
activity while deep bored wells can in some cases remain more unaffected.
Nitrate is a substance that develops naturally from organic waste. It is formed by bacteria through
nitrification when e.g. ammonium from urine is released into an environment with enough heat and
oxygen. When a well is polluted by nitrate, uncollected sewage is often the reason. In nature, nitrate is
absorbed by plants as nutrition, as part of a natural circulation. Problems occur when nitrate ends up in
drinking water instead of in the ground. Other explanations for nitrate in a well, except sewage, are
industrial impact or fertilizers. Since the city of Bangalore is very urbanized, fertilizers are in most
cases unlikely to be the cause of nitrate pollution.
When sewage is uncollected, it percolates the ground. Where it ends up depends on the structure of the
ground and the aquifers. The shallow aquifers are more likely to be affected, since the sewage reaches
these aquifers first. On the other hand, old unmanaged deep wells might function as macropores down
to deeper aquifers and thereby transport pollutions very fast. In deeper aquifers with low amounts of
13. 13
oxygen, chemical reactions occur in a different way than close to the surface. It is likely that nitrates
will remain for a longer time in the deeper aquifers because of a lack of plant roots for uptake and a
lack of oxygen for bacterial degradation.
How fast sewage reaches the groundwater depends on the soil structure. The more microorganisms
and plants, the more nitrate will be absorbed before percolating. Macropores such as abandoned deep
wells raise dramatically the hydraulic conductivity, affecting the cleaning process. The soil of
Bangalore is an old tropical soil, high in iron, silicate and aluminum complexes but low in carbon and
nutrients. Since the soil is low in nutrients and carbon, it is likely to have a low microbiological
activity and it is therefore a weak biological barrier for nitrate. On the other hand, the soil is dry and
warm and it is very difficult for water to percolate through it before evaporating. Most of the water
that reaches the ground evaporates. Leakages of sewage to the groundwater are, because of these
conditions, most likely to come from deep pipes and through macropores rather than from open
ditches. Since the groundwater level is higher in the central city, this area is more sensitive to pipe
leakages.
Nitrate health risks
The risk associated with a high intake of nitrate is mainly methaemoglobinaemia (blue baby
syndrome). This is caused by involvement of nitrate in the oxidation of normal Hb to metHb, which is
unable to transport oxygen to the tissues (WHO 2012). This mainly affects infants up to three months
of age in combination with gastrointestinal infections. As most cases of infantile
methaemoglobinaemia reported in the literature have been associated with the consumption of
bacterially contaminated well water, the involvement of infections is highly probable. Therefore
infants might be able to take in a larger amount of nitrate in an environment with higher hygiene
standards. Few cases of methaemoglobinaemia have been reported in older children. For adults there
might be an increased risk of gastric cancer related to a high intake of nitrate, but this is yet not proven
scientifically. The largest risk that follows nitrates in a well is the potential leakage of sewage, and
thereby greater health risks, into the well. These health risks might not be as easy to monitor, therefore
it is better to use nitrate as an indicator.
Nitrate as a tracer
When treated sewage water is released into lakes it will recharge the groundwater while percolating. It
is important to understand the flows so the impact on the ground water level and ground water quality
can be monitored. To follow the flows, nitrate can be used as a tracer. If sewage water is released into
a natural ecosystem, it will bring along high levels of nitrate. These levels will decrease along the way
through the processes mentioned above, like plant uptake and nitrification, and eventually the water
will be potable. When water samples are taken along the wetland and tested for nitrate, the flow of the
14. 14
sewage water is traced. Related to the time the sewage water remains in the wetland, nitrate levels are
reduced. Therefore a decrease in nitrate level should follow in the direction of the flow.
As the nitrate levels are reduced, one can assume that the levels of other pollutants are reduced as well.
This is never guaranteed though and e.g. temperature and nutrients can affect the involved processes.
Bacteria, viruses and parasites will be reduced by a natural concurrence over nutrients, by
sedimentation, by UV light and by predator microbes. Nitrate will be reduced by volatilization and by
microorganisms and plants absorbing it, and the result becomes visible as an increase in biomass.
Material and methods
Scope of study
Initially, this project was to investigate nitrate levels in drinking water wells in a specific area in
Bangalore. Upon arriving in Bangalore, it became apparent that this project could not be pursued, and
instead the project was to address a sustainable drinking water system for Bangalore, which was of
great interest to the local mentor. In particular, his vision included recharging groundwater below
Jakkur Lake.
A major part of this project involves collecting water samples for nitrate analyses so as to study if
there is any change in nitrate level in the wastewater passing through Jakkur Lake. As mentioned
above, the aim of this study is to study the nitrate levels of the treated water from the treatment plant
and thereby value the function of the lake as a wastewater treatment, find other possible sources of
nitrate and investigate the relationship between the distance from the treatment plant and the nitrate
levels in the water. Furthermore, general information on groundwater recharge is presented as a basis
for evaluating the possibilities to recharge groundwater below Jakkur Lake.
In order to fulfill the aims of this study, water samples were taken from different parts of Jakkur Lake
in order to study the nitrate levels in the flow from the sewage treatment plant. Samples from wells
surrounding the lake were also taken for the possibility to see amounts of nitrates from the treatment
plant in the wells, which could be an indicator of a flow from the lake into the underlying aquifer. The
level of total dissolved solids, TDS, was measured as a parameter to value the correctness of the
nitrate levels obtained. The level of TDS should follow the amount of nitrate more or less
proportionally. As a request from the co-workers at the company hosting this project in Bangalore,
Biome Environmental Solutions, general information on nitrates in water were given extra focus in
this report.
15. 15
Testing procedure
Samples were collected twice on two different occasions. Some locations were sampled both times,
some only once. The water samples were taken by walking around the lake and sampling directly in
clean PET bottles as in figure 3. Locations were chosen to cover the whole lake but also to cover
interesting spots such as storm drains, places with high human activity and the outlet from the
treatment plant. Some people moving in the area were interviewed, among these fishermen, young
men swimming and women working with washing clothes. These interviews were done with the help
of a co-worker from Biome Environmental Solutions. Questions were asked about how the people,
active around the lake at the time of the interviews, experience the water quality of the lake. The aim
was to get a better picture on which parts of the lake that were of special interest to sample. This led to
us finding storm drains that we did not notice before. When possible, children playing in the lake were
asked to take water samples to reach deeper spots away from the shore. No samples were taken from
the middle of the lake because of practical obstacles. For the second sampling round, a TDS-meter was
used but data was only collected from a limited number of points. All samples from the second water
sampling round were tested for TDS at a later time.
The nitrate testing was done with a nitrate testing kit named TARA Water Testing Kit for pH and
Nitrate. The name of the company manufacturing these kits is TARAenviro. The kit works by
colorimetry, and three color examples were presented. Water from each sample was boiled dry, see
figure 4. Ammonia and phenoldisulphonic acid were added. The final occurring color was compared
to the three colors represented. The first color, light yellow, represented nitrate levels of 10 mg/l. The
second color, green, represented nitrate levels of 45 mg/l, as the WHO maximum contaminant level
for nitrate in drinking water. The third color, dark yellow, represented nitrate levels of 100 mg/l.
Figure 3 (left): A sample is taken from the water flowing directly from the
treatment plant into Jakkur Lake (Photo: P. Sjöholm).
Figure 4 (right): Two samples are being boiled dry as part of the testing
procedure (Photo: P. Sjöholm).
16. 16
Research on Jakkur Lake
Most of the data given on Bangalore and Jakkur Lake was collected by literature studies and
interviews. Some information was collected during a conference including professionals and
academics involved in the water infrastructure of Bangalore. Information on Jakkur Lake being a
natural wetland was collected during a workshop that included members of the BWSSB. This
workshop was called Water Supply and Sanitation Solutions for Bangalore and was held the 14th
of
December 2012 in Bangalore.
Results
To map the flow from the sewage treatment plant through the wetland, water samples were collected
around the lake. Samples were tested for temperature, nitrate, pH-value and TDS-value. The data from
the water samples are collected in table 1. When the nitrate testing results showed a color seemingly in
between the two given options of 0 mg/l and 45 mg/l, the result was interpreted as 10-45 mg/l. The
circumstances of the sampling site are described and whether the site was tested once or twice. Nitrate
levels from the two occasions follow together with pH-levels, TDS-levels, temperatures and comments
to each site. The TDS-values were not tested at the location but later, in a temperature of 23.2 degrees
Celsius. The pH-values were checked at the same time as the TDS-values.
17. 17
Table 1: Collected data from water samples
Site
no.
Position
(amount of
tests)
Nitrate
level,
first
sample
(mg/l)
Nitrate
level,
second
sample
(mg/l)
pH-
value
TDS
(ppm)
Temp.
(Celsius) Comments
1
Open well, south
side (2) 0 0 7 1080 - Used daily for drinking
2
Outside storm
drain (2) 10-45 0 7 1110 -
3
T-Plant side of
pier (2) 0 0 8 1450 -
In the wetland and by
the inlet to the lake
4
Lake side of pier
(2) 10-45 10-45 7 1130 25
Among swimming
children
5
From treatment
plant (2) 0 0 9 1360 -
Square drain out from
plant
6
Well/swimming
pool (1) 10-45 - 5 - -
High risk of urine
contaminated sample
7 Borewell (1) 0 - 7 - -
8
West shoreline
(1) - 10-45 7 1120 25
By the shore among
water hyacinths
9
Under white res.
Houses (1) - 45 7 1120 -
A slum situated close
by
10
Close to
washing point
(1) - 10-45 7 1120 25
People washing clothes
and swimming close
by
11
South west
lakeside (1) - 10-45 7 1120 25.5
Plenty of water
hyacinths at the spot
12 At south gate (2) - 10-45 7 1120 -
At the outlet of the
lake
18. 18
The sites tested are numbered and shown on the map in figure 9. Numbers with a red circle shows sites
where nitrate was found in either one or both samples. The highest level of nitrate was found at site
number 9.
Figure 9: The sites for sampling marked, and sites where nitrate was found are marked with a red ring.
Discussion
Since the two water tests taken at different times from the outlet of the treatment plant had no traces of
nitrate, the strategy of mapping the flow by the nitrate levels did not succeed. Instead, nitrate showed
in the areas around the lake with most human activity. It seems from the results like Jakkur Lake does
not only receive sewage from one stationary source, but from many small ones situated around the
lake. There might also be sewage in the storm drains leading into the lake. Sewage water from the
village of Jakkur is led to Jakkur Lake and it is likely that this sewage water does not pass the
treatment plant. This has been assumed in earlier studies (Alakananda et al. 2011).
As for the nitrate testing kit, it was sometimes difficult to interpret the result. Often the result had a
color matching none of the given ones. The range went from colorless to green. Since the highest and
the lowest nitrate levels presented by the testing kit had the same color but in different intensities, it
led to some confusion that might affect the results. Further the testing kit procedure was too slow to
use out in the field, since the procedure to prepare one single sample took about half an hour. The
TDS-levels are not correlated to the nitrate levels, which indicate errors in one or both of the
measurement procedures.
19. 19
Figure 8: A test result as an example of the difficulties with colorimetry as the resulting color of the sample does not
match any of the given choices (Photo: P. Sjöholm).
To be able to make further calculations on the cleaning efficiency of the wetland and the ground, there
are many parts to further investigate. This includes retention time for the water in the wetland, the soil
structure, the infiltration amount and direction, the ground quality in general, the inlets to the lake and
possible sources of pollution other than treated sewage water. The direction of the flow in and around
Jakkur Lake must be known, and it is likely that the wetland does not have a completed construction to
function as a constructed wetland per definition. Neither the characteristics of a horizontal nor a
vertical wetland matches the wetland in Jakkur Lake, where wastewater from the treatment plant is led
to the wetland surface and then seems to flow mainly horizontally. This indicates that the wastewater
never passes any kind of granular medium.
If municipal recharge of water could be put into function, it would be a huge ecological and
economical relief on the water scarcity of Bangalore. For this to happen, the BWSSB have to take on
responsibility for the quality of the groundwater. As for now, this institution only take on
responsibility for delivering piped water. In a city where the citizens rely on different sources of water
such as rainwater, Cauvery water, tank water, bottled water, and water from bored and open wells, it is
not sustainable that no municipal institution is responsible for groundwater quality. Thereby this
question is highly political and a part of solving the water scarcity for the future generations of
Bangalore.
Conclusions
When it comes to groundwater recharge by treated sewage water, the risks always have to be taken
into account. Activity around and in the lake have to be strictly monitored to prevent e.g. sudden loads
of pollutants. The technical limitations such as fluctuations in efficiency and pollutant migration must
be minimized, which should be done by building a proper constructed wetland and controlling the
inflow to the lake. The economical, political and ecological benefits of pumping less water from
Cauvery River should be further studied.
As water is used for many other purposes than drinking, it is reasonable to supply water of different
qualities depending on what the usage is. I suggest using Jakkur Lake as the infiltration basin that it is
20. 20
today, and develop the wetland into a proper constructed wetland. It is already a common habit for the
people of Bangalore to use different water sources for different purposes. Therefore water supplied by
the municipality for other usage than drinking could be one important step to handle the water
scarcity. This water can be used for washing cars, cleaning drive ways, gardening etc, as long as
information on the quality reaches the consumers. By reusing water, a huge amount of money and
energy can be saved.
21. 21
References
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ATREE Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment. 2012. Information collected
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Das, S. 2011. BENGALURU Water Problems of the Fastest Growing City of India. Bangalore:
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