The document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in psychology, including definitions of psychology and behavior. It then discusses several major approaches in psychology - behaviorism, psychodynamic/psychoanalytic, cognitive, humanistic, and biological. For each approach, it outlines the basic assumptions, perspectives, and contributors. The behaviorist approach section provides details on classical and operant conditioning. The psychodynamic approach outlines Freud's concepts of the id, ego, superego and psychosexual stages of development. The humanistic approach emphasizes free will and fulfillment through self-actualization.

1. DEFINITION
PSYCHOLOGY: IT IS A SCIENCE THAT STUDIES BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL
PROCESSES. (HILGARD ET AL) OR
• IT IS A SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL PROCESSES
• THIS DEFINITION RECOGNIZES THAT PSYCHOLOGY IS AN OVERT
(OBSERVABLE) STUDY OF ACTIVITIES SUCH AS WITHDRAWAL FROM PAIN.
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2. DEFINITION CONT
• IT ALSO VALUES THE IMPORTANCE OF COVERT (UNOBSERVABLE) UNDERLYING
MENTAL PROCESSES THAT MUST BE INFERRED FROM BEHAVIOURAL AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA SUCH AS EMOTIONS, THOUGHTS AND DREAMS.
BEHAVIOUR: IS ANY ACTIVITY OF A PERSON INCLUDING PHYSICAL ACTIONS
THAT MAY BE OBSERVED DIRECTLY, AND MENTAL ACTIVITY WHICH IS
INFERRED AND INTERPRETED.
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3. APPROACHES INTRODUCTION
• THERE ARE VARIOUS DIFFERENT APPROACHES IN CONTEMPORARY
PSYCHOLOGY.
• AN APPROACH IS A PERSPECTIVE (I.E. VIEW) THAT INVOLVES CERTAIN
ASSUMPTIONS (I.E. BELIEFS) ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR: THE WAY THEY
FUNCTION, WHICH ASPECTS OF THEM ARE WORTHY OF STUDY AND WHAT
RESEARCH METHODS ARE APPROPRIATE FOR UNDERTAKING THIS STUDY.
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4. APPROACHES INTRODUCTION
•YOU MAY WONDER WHY THERE ARE SO MANY DIFFERENT
PSYCHOLOGY APPROACHES AND WHETHER ONE APPROACH IS
CORRECT AND OTHERS WRONG.
•MOST PSYCHOLOGISTS WOULD AGREE THAT NO ONE APPROACH
IS CORRECT, ALTHOUGH IN THE PAST, IN THE EARLY DAYS OF
PSYCHOLOGY, THE BEHAVIOURIST WOULD HAVE SAID THEIR
APPROACH WAS THE ONLY TRULY SCIENTIFIC ONE.
•EACH APPROACH HAS ITS STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES, AND
BRINGS SOMETHING DIFFERENT TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR.
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5. APPROACHES INTRODUCTION CONT
• FOR THIS REASONS, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT PSYCHOLOGY DOES HAVE
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO THE UNDERSTANDING AND STUDY OF HUMAN
AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR.
• BELOW IS A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE 5 MAIN PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES
(SOMETIMES CALLED PERSPECTIVES) IN PSYCHOLOGY
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6. APPROACHES INTRODUCTION CONT
• BEHAVIOURISM (BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH)
• PSYCHODYNAMIC (PSYCHOANALYTICAL)
• COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
• HUMANISM (HUMANISTIC APPROACH)
• BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (NEUROLOGICAL)
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7. BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
• BEHAVIOURISM IS DIFFERENT FROM MOST OTHER APPROACHES BECAUSE
THEY VIEW PEOPLE (AND ANIMALS) AS CONTROLLED BY THEIR ENVIRONMENT
AND SPECIFICALLY THAT WE ARE THE RESULT OF WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
FROM OUR ENVIRONMENT.
• BEHAVIOURISM IS CONCERNED WITH HOW ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
(CALLED STIMULI) AFFECT OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR (CALLED THE RESPONSE).
• THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH PROPOSES TWO MAIN PROCESSES WHEREBY
PEOPLE LEARN FROM THEIR ENVIRONMENT: NAMELY CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING AND OPERANT CONDITIONING.
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8. BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH CONT
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING INVOLVES LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION, AND
OPERANT CONDITIONING INVOLVES LEARNING FROM THE CONSEQUENCES OF
BEHAVIOUR.
• BEHAVIOURISM ALSO BELIEVES IN SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY (E.G.
CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS), AND THAT ONLY OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR
SHOULD BE STUDIES BECAUSE THIS CAN BE OBJECTIVELY MEASURED.
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9. BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH CONT
• BEHAVIOURISM REJECTS THE IDEA THAT PEOPLE HAVE FREE WILL, AND
BELIEVES THAT THE ENVIRONMENT DETERMINES ALL BEHAVIOUR.
• BEHAVIOURISM IS THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR
WORKING ON THE BASIS THAT BEHAVIOUR CAN BE REDUCED TO LEARNED S-R
(STIMULUS-RESPONSE) UNITS.
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10. BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH CONT
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CC) WAS STUDIED BY THE RUSSIAN
PSYCHOLOGIST IVAN PAVLOV.
• THROUGH LOOKING INTO NATURAL REFLEXES AND NEUTRAL STIMULI
HE MANAGED TO CONDITION DOGS TO SALIVATE TO THE SOUND OF A
BELL THROUGH REPEATED ASSOCIATED OF THE SOUND OF THE BELL
AND FOOD.
• THE PRINCIPLES OF CC HAVE BEEN APPLIED IN MANY THERAPIES.
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11. BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH CONT
•THESE INCLUDE SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION FOR PHOBIAS
(STEP-BY-STEP EXPOSED TO FEARED STIMULUS AT ONCE) AND
AVERSION THERAPY FOR SOCIALLY UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS
AND BAD HABITS (INDIVIDUAL ASSOCIATES A DISLIKED
RESPONSE TO THE HABIT THROUGH REPEATED PAIRING).
•HOWEVER CC ONLY DEALS WITH INVOLUNTARY BEHAVIOUR,
OPERANT CONDITIONING TACKLES VOLUNTARY BEHAVIOUR.
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12. BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH CONT
• B.F. SKINNER INVESTIGATED OPERANT CONDITIONING OF VOLUNTARY
AND INVOLUNTARY BEHAVIOUR.
• SKINNER FELT THAT SOME BEHAVIOUR COULD BE EXPLAINED BY THE
PERSON'S MOTIVE.
• THEREFORE BEHAVIOUR OCCURS FOR A REASON, AND THE THREE MAIN
BEHAVIOUR SHAPING TECHNIQUES ARE POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT,
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT.
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13. BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH CONT
• BEHAVIOURISM HAS BEEN CRITICISED IN THE WAY IT UNDER-ESTIMATES THE
COMPLEXITY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR.
• MANY STUDIES USED ANIMALS WHICH ARE HARD TO GENERALISE TO
HUMANS AND IT CANNOT EXPLAIN FOR EXAMPLE THE SPEED IN WHICH WE
PICK UP LANGUAGE.
• THERE MUST BE BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED.
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14. 8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 15

15. • SIGMUND FREUD
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16. • IF YOU KNOW VERY LITTLE ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY, AND YOU HAVE HEARD OF
JUST ONE PSYCHOLOGIST, THE CHANCES ARE THAT THIS IS SIGMUND FREUD,
THE FOUNDER OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY, OR
PSYCHOANALYSIS.
• IF FREUD REPRESENTS YOUR LAYPERSON'S IDEA OF PSYCHOLOGY THEN YOU
PROBABLY HAVE AN IMAGE OF A PATIENT LYING ON A COUCH TALKING ABOUT
THEIR DEEPEST AND DARKEST SECRETS
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17. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
• SIGMUND FREUD BELIEVES THAT EVENTS IN OUR CHILDHOOD CAN
HAVE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON OUR BEHAVIOUR AS ADULTS.
• HE ALSO BELIEVED THAT PEOPLE HAVE LITTLE FREE WILL TO MAKE
CHOICES IN LIFE.
• INSTEAD OUR BEHAVIOUR IS DETERMINED BY THE UNCONSCIOUS
MIND AND CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES.
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18. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONT
• FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYSIS IS BOTH A THEORY AND A THERAPY.
• IT IS THE ORIGINAL PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY AND INSPIRED
PSYCHOLOGISTS SUCH AS JUNG AND ERIKSONN TO DEVELOP THEIR
OWN PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES.
• FREUD’S WORK IS VAST AND HE HAS CONTRIBUTED GREATLY TO
PSYCHOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE.
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19. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONT
• FREUD, THE FOUNDER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS, EXPLAINED THE HUMAN MIND AS
LIKE AN ICEBERG, WITH ONLY A SMALL AMOUNT OF IT BEING VISIBLE, THAT IS
OUR OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR, BUT IT IS THE UNCONSCIOUS, SUBMERGED
MIND THAT HAS THE MOST, UNDERLYING INFLUENCE ON OUR BEHAVIOUR.
• FREUD USED THREE MAIN METHODS OF ACCESSING THE UNCONSCIOUS
MIND: FREEASSOCIATION, DREAM ANALYSIS AND SLIPS OF THE TONGUE.
• HE BELIEVED THAT THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND CONSISTED OF THREE
COMPONENTS: THE 'ID' THE 'EGO' AND THE 'SUPEREGO'.
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20. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONT
• THE 'ID' CONTAINS TWO MAIN INSTINCTS: 'EROS', WHICH IS THE LIFE
INSTINCT, WHICH INVOLVES SELF-PRESERVATION AND SEX WHICH IS
FUELLED BY THE 'LIBIDO' ENERGY FORCE. ‘
• THANATOS' IS THE DEATH INSTINCT, WHOSE ENERGIES, BECAUSE THEY
ARE LESS POWERFUL THAN THOSE OF 'EROS' ARE CHANNELED AWAY
FROM OURSELVES AND INTO AGGRESSION TOWARDS OTHERS.
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21. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONT
• THE 'ID' AND THE 'SUPEREGO' ARE CONSTANTLY IN CONFLICT WITH
EACH OTHER, AND THE 'EGO' TRIES TO RESOLVE THE DISCORD.
• IF THIS CONFLICT IS NOT RESOLVED, WE TEND TO USE DEFENSE
MECHANISMS TO REDUCE OUR ANXIETIES.
• PSYCHOANALYSIS ATTEMPTS TO HELP PATIENTS RESOLVE THEIR INNER
CONFLICTS.
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22. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONT
• AN ASPECT OF PSYCHOANALYSIS IS FREUD'S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT.
• IT SHOWS HOW EARLY EXPERIENCES AFFECT ADULT PERSONALITY.
• STIMULATION OF DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE BODY IS IMPORTANT AS
THE CHILD PROGRESSES THROUGH THE IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTAL
STAGES.
• TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE CAN HAVE BAD CONSEQUENCES LATER.
• THE MOST IMPORTANT STAGE IS THE PHALLIC STAGE WHERE THE
FOCUS OF THE LIBIDO IS ON THE GENITALS.
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23. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONT
• DURING THIS STAGE LITTLE BOYS EXPERIENCE THE 'OEDIPUS COMPLEX', AND
LITTLE GIRLS EXPERIENCE THE 'ELECTRA COMPLEX'.
• THESE COMPLEXES RESULT IN CHILDREN IDENTIFYING WITH THEIR SAME-SEX
PARENT, WHICH ENABLES THEM TO LEARN SEX-APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR AND
A MORALE CODE OF CONDUCT.
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24. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONT
• HOWEVER IT HAS BEEN CRITICISED IN THE WAY THAT IT OVER EMPHASISES
OF IMPORTANCE OF SEXUALITY AND UNDER EMPHASISES OF ROLE OF SOCIAL
RELATIONSHIPS.
• THE THEORY IS NOT SCIENTIFIC, AND CAN'T BE PROVED AS IT IS CIRCULAR.
• THE SAMPLE WAS BIASED, CONSISTING OF MIDDLE-CLASS, MIDDLE-AGED
NEUROTIC WOMEN.
• NEVER THE LESS PSYCHOANALYSIS HAS BEEN GREATLY CONTRIBUTORY TO
PSYCHOLOGY IN THAT IT HAS ENCOURAGED MANY MODERN THEORISTS TO
MODIFY IT FOR THE BETTER, USING ITS BASIC PRINCIPLES, BUT ELIMINATING
ITS MAJOR FLAWS.
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25. HUMANISTIC APPROACH
• HUMANISM IS A PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH THAT EMPHASISES THE
STUDY OF THE WHOLE PERSON.
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGISTS LOOK AT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR NOT ONLY
THROUGH THE EYES OF THE OBSERVER, BUT THROUGH THE EYES OF
THE PERSON DOING THE BEHAVING.
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGISTS BELIEVE THAT AN INDIVIDUAL'S
BEHAVIOUR IS CONNECTED TO HIS INNER FEELINGS AND SELF-IMAGE.
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26. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH IN PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPED AS A REBELLION
AGAINST WHAT SOME PSYCHOLOGISTS SAW AS LIMITATIONS OF THE
BEHAVIOURIST AND PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY.
• THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH IS THUS OFTEN CALLED THE “THIRD FORCE” IN
PSYCHOLOGY AFTER PSYCHOANALYSIS AND BEHAVIOURISM.
• HUMANISM REJECTED THE ASSUMPTION OF THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
WHICH IS CHARACTERIZED AS DETERMINISTIC, FOCUSED ON
REINFORCEMENT OF STIMULUS-RESPONSE BEHAVIOUR AND HEAVILY
DEPENDENT ON ANIMAL RESEARCH.
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27. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY ALSO REJECTED THE PSYCHODYNAMIC
APPROACH BECAUSE IT ALSO IS DETERMINISTIC, WITH UNCONSCIOUS
IRRATIONAL AND INSTINCTIVE FORCES DETERMINING HUMAN THOUGHT AND
BEHAVIOUR.
• BOTH BEHAVIOURISM AND PSYCHOANALYSIS ARE REGARDED AS
DEHUMANIZING BY HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGISTS.
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28. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY ASSUMPTIONS
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY BEGINS WITH THE EXISTENTIAL
ASSUMPTIONS THAT PHENOMENOLOGY IS CENTRAL AND THAT PEOPLE
HAVE FREE WILL.
• PERSONAL AGENCY IS THE HUMANISTIC TERM FOR THE EXERCISE OF
FREE WILL.
• PERSONAL AGENCY REFERS TO THE CHOICES WE MAKE IN LIFE, THE
PATHS WE GO DOWN AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES.
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29. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• A FURTHER ASSUMPTION IS THEN ADDED - PEOPLE ARE BASICALLY GOOD, AND
HAVE AN INNATE NEED TO MAKE THEMSELVES AND THE WORLD BETTER.
• THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH EMPHASISES THE PERSONAL WORTH OF THE
INDIVIDUAL, THE CENTRALITY OF HUMAN VALUES, AND THE CREATIVE, ACTIVE
NATURE OF HUMAN BEINGS.
• THE APPROACH IS OPTIMISTIC AND FOCUSES ON NOBLE HUMAN CAPACITY
TO OVERCOME HARDSHIP, PAIN AND DESPAIR.
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30. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• BOTH ROGERS AND MASLOW REGARDED PERSONAL GROWTH AND
FULFILLMENT IN LIFE AS A BASIC HUMAN MOTIVE.
• THIS MEANS THAT EACH PERSON, IN DIFFERENT WAYS, SEEKS TO GROW
PSYCHOLOGICALLY AND CONTINUOUSLY ENHANCE THEMSELVES.
• THIS HAS BEEN CAPTURED BY THE TERM SELF-ACTUALISATION WHICH IS
ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL GROWTH, FULFILLMENT AND SATISFACTION IN LIFE.
• HOWEVER, ROGERS AND MASLOW BOTH DESCRIBE DIFFERENT WAYS OF HOW
SELF-ACTUALIZATION CAN BE ACHIEVED.
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31. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• CENTRAL TO THE HUMANIST THEORIES OF CARL ROGERS AND ABRAHAM
MASLOW ARE THE SUBJECTIVE, CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCES OF THE
INDIVIDUAL.
• THE HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGISTS ARGUED THAT OBJECTIVE REALITY IS LESS
IMPORTANT THAN A PERSON'S SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION AND SUBJECTIVE
UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD.
• BECAUSE OF THIS, ROGERS AND MASLOW PLACED LITTLE VALUE ON
SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY ESPECIALLY THE USE OF THE PSYCHOLOGY
LABORATORY TO INVESTIGATE BOTH HUMAN AND OTHER ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR.
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32. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• THE HUMANIST'S VIEW HUMAN BEINGS AS FUNDAMENTALLY
DIFFERENT FROM OTHER ANIMALS MAINLY BECAUSE HUMANS ARE
CONSCIOUS BEINGS CAPABLE OF THOUGHT, REASON AND LANGUAGE.
• FOR HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGISTS’ RESEARCH ON ANIMALS, SUCH AS
RATS, PIGEONS, OR MONKEYS HELD LITTLE VALUE.
• RESEARCH ON SUCH ANIMALS CAN TELL US, SO THEY ARGUED, VERY
LITTLE ABOUT HUMAN THOUGHT, BEHAVIOUR AND EXPERIENCE.
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33. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGISTS REJECTED A RIGOROUS SCIENTIFIC
APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY BECAUSE THEY SAW IT AS
DEHUMANISING AND UNABLE TO CAPTURE THE RICHNESS OF
CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE.
• IN MANY WAYS THE REJECTION OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY IN THE
1950S, 1960S AND 1970S WAS A BACKLASH TO THE DOMINANCE OF
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH IN NORTH AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY.
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34. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
• HUMANS HAVE FREE WILL; NOT ALL BEHAVIOUR IS DETERMINED.
• ALL INDIVIDUALS ARE UNIQUE AND HAVE AN INNATE (INBORN) DRIVE
TO ACHIEVE THEIR MAXIMUM POTENTIAL
• A PROPER UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR CAN ONLY BE
ACHIEVED BY STUDYING HUMANS - NOT ANIMALS.
• PSYCHOLOGY SHOULD STUDY THE INDIVIDUAL CASE (IDIOGRAPHIC)
RATHER THAN THE AVERAGE PERFORMANCE OF GROUPS
(NOMOTHETIC).
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35. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• AREAS OF APPLICATION
PERSON CENTERED THERAPY
QUALITATIVE METHODS
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR (INCONGRUENT, LOW SELF-WORTH)
EDUCATION
GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
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36. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• STRENGTHS
• SHIFTED THE FOCUS OF BEHAVIOUR TO THE INDIVIDUAL / WHOLE
PERSON RATHER THAN THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND, GENES, OBSERVABLE
BEHAVIOUR ETC.
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY SATISFIES MOST PEOPLE'S IDEA OF WHAT
BEING HUMAN MEANS BECAUSE IT VALUES PERSONAL IDEALS AND
SELF-FULFILLMENT.
• QUALITATIVE DATA GIVES GENUINE INSIGHT )AND MORE HOLISTIC
INFORMATION) INTO BEHAVIOUR.
• HIGHLIGHTS THE VALUE OF MORE INDIVIDUALISTIC AND IDIOGRAPHIC
METHODS OF STUDY
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37. HUMANISTIC APPROACH CONT
• WEAKNESSES
• UNSCIENTIFIC – SUBJECTIVE CONCEPTS
E.G. CANNOT OBJECTIVELY MEASURE SELF-ACTUALIZATION
• HUMANISM IGNORES THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND
• BEHAVIOURISM – HUMAN AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR CAN BE
COMPARED
• QUALITATIVE DATA IS DIFFICULT TO COMPARE
• ETHNOCENTRIC (BIASED TOWARDS WESTERN CULTURE)
• THEIR BELIEF IN FREE WILL IS IN OPPOSITION TO THE DETERMINISTIC
LAWS OF SCIENCE.
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38. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• THE WHOLE MOVEMENT HAD EVOLVED FROM THE EARLY PHILOSOPHERS, SUCH
AS ARISTOTLE AND PLATO.
• TODAY THIS APPROACH IS KNOWN AS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY.
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39. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY REVOLVES AROUND THE NOTION THAT IF WE WANT
TO KNOW WHAT MAKES PEOPLE TICK THEN THE WAY TO DO IT IS TO FIGURE
OUT WHAT PROCESSES ARE ACTUALLY GOING ON IN THEIR MINDS.
• IN OTHER WORDS, PSYCHOLOGISTS FROM THIS PERSPECTIVE STUDY
COGNITION WHICH IS ‘THE MENTAL ACT OR PROCESS BY WHICH KNOWLEDGE
IS ACQUIRED.’
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40. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• THE COGNITIVE APPROACH IS CONCERNED WITH “MENTAL” FUNCTIONS SUCH
AS MEMORY, PERCEPTION, ATTENTION ETC.
• IT VIEWS PEOPLE AS BEING SIMILAR TO COMPUTERS IN THE WAY WE
PROCESS INFORMATION (E.G. INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT).
• FOR EXAMPLE, BOTH HUMAN BRAINS AND COMPUTERS PROCESS
INFORMATION, STORE DATA AND HAVE INPUT AN OUTPUT PROCEDURES.
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41. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• THIS HAD LED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS TO EXPLAIN THAT MEMORY
COMPRISES OF THREE STAGES:
ENCODING (WHERE INFORMATION IS RECEIVED AND ATTENDED TO),
STORAGE (WHERE THE INFORMATION IS RETAINED)
AND RETRIEVAL (WHERE THE INFORMATION IS RECALLED).
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42. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• IT IS AN EXTREMELY SCIENTIFIC APPROACH AND TYPICALLY USES LAB
EXPERIMENTS TO STUDY HUMAN BEHAVIOUR.
• THE COGNITIVE APPROACH HAS MANY APPLICATIONS INCLUDING COGNITIVE
THERAPY AND EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY.
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43. COGNITIVE APPROACH
•THE TERM COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY CAME INTO USE WITH THE
PUBLICATION OF THE BOOK COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY BY ULRIC
NEISSER IN 1967.
•COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY REVOLVES AROUND THE NOTION THAT
IF WE WANT TO KNOW WHAT MAKES PEOPLE TICK THEN THE
WAY TO DO IT IS TO FIGURE OUT WHAT PROCESSES ARE
ACTUALLY GOING ON IN THEIR MINDS.
•COGNITION LITERALLY MEANS “KNOWING”. IN OTHER WORDS,
PSYCHOLOGISTS FROM THIS APPROACH STUDY COGNITION
WHICH IS ‘THE MENTAL ACT OR PROCESS BY WHICH
KNOWLEDGE IS ACQUIRED.’
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44. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• THEY FOCUS ON THE WAY HUMANS PROCESS INFORMATION, LOOKING AT
HOW WE TREAT INFORMATION THAT COMES IN TO THE PERSON (WHAT
BEHAVIOURIST WOULD CALL STIMULI) AND HOW THIS TREATMENT LEADS TO
RESPONSES.
• IN OTHER WORDS, THEY ARE INTERESTED IN THE VARIABLES THAT MEDIATE
BETWEEN STIMULUS/INPUT AND RESPONSE/OUTPUT.
• THE MAIN AREAS OF STUDY IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY ARE: PERCEPTION,
ATTENTION, MEMORY AND LANGUAGE.
• THE COGNITIVE APPROACH APPLIES A HOMOTHETIC APPROACH TO DISCOVER
HUMAN COGNITIVE PROCESSES, BUT HAVE ALSO ADOPTED IDIOGRAPHIC
TECHNIQUES THROUGH USING CASE STUDIES (E.G. KF, HM).
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45. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• TYPICALLY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS USE THE LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
TO STUDY BEHAVIOUR.
• THIS IS BECAUSE THE COGNITIVE APPROACH IS A SCIENTIFIC ONE.
• FOR EXAMPLE, PARTICIPANTS WILL TAKE PART IN MEMORY TESTS IN
STRICTLY CONTROLLED CONDITIONS.
• HOWEVER, THE WIDELY USED LAB EXPERIMENT CAN BE CRITICISED FOR
LACKING ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY (A MAJOR CRITICISM OF COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY).
• COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY BECAME OF GREAT IMPORTANCE IN THE MID-1950S.
• SEVERAL FACTORS WERE IMPORTANT IN THIS: -
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46. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• DISSATISFACTION WITH THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH IN ITS
SIMPLE EMPHASIS ON EXTERNAL BEHAVIOUR RATHER THAN INTERNAL
PROCESSES
• THE DEVELOPMENT OF BETTER EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
• THE START OF THE USE OF COMPUTERS ALLOWED PSYCHOLOGISTS TO
TRY TO UNDERSTAND THE COMPLEXITIES OF HUMAN COGNITION BY
COMPARING IT WITH SOMETHING SIMPLER AND BETTER UNDERSTOOD
I.E. AN ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM SUCH AS A COMPUTER.
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47. COGNITIVE APPROACH
• THE COGNITIVE APPROACH BEGAN TO REVOLUTIONISE PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE LATE 1950’S AND EARLY 1960’S, TO BECOME THE DOMINANT
APPROACH (I.E. PERSPECTIVE) IN PSYCHOLOGY BY THE LATE 1970S.
• INTEREST IN MENTAL PROCESSES HAD BEEN GRADUALLY RESTORED
THROUGH THE WORK OF PIAGET AND TOLMAN.
• OTHER FACTORS WERE IMPORTANT IN THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH.
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48. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY
• KEY CONCEPTS
MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES (PROCESS BETWEEN STIMULUS AND RESPONSE)
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
COMPUTER ANALOGY
INTROSPECTION (WUNDT)
NOMOTHETIC (STUDIES THE GROUP)
SCHEMA
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49. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY
• BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
• COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IS A PURE SCIENCE, BASED MAINLY ON
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS.
• BEHAVIOUR CAN BE LARGELY EXPLAINED IN TERMS OF HOW THE MIND
OPERATES, I.E. THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH.
• THE MIND WORKS IN A WAY SIMILAR TO A COMPUTER: INPUTTING,
STORING AND RETRIEVING DATA.
• MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES OCCUR BETWEEN STIMULUS AND
RESPONSE.
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50. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY
• AREAS OF APPLICATION
• GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
• EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY / COGNITIVE INTERVIEW
• MEMORY, ATTENTION, PERCEPTION ETC.
• CHILD DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET)
• COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
• LEARNING STYLES (KOLB)
• MORAL DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET)
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 51

51. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY
• STRENGTHS
• SCIENTIFIC
• HIGHLY APPLICABLE (E.G. THERAPY,)
• COMBINES EASILY WITH APPROACHES: BEHAVIOURISM + COG = SOCIAL
LEARNING BIOLOGY + COG = EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
• MANY EMPIRICAL STUDIES TO SUPPORT THEORIES
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 52

52. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY
• WEAKNESSES
• IGNORES BIOLOGY (E.G. TESTOSTERONE)
• EXPERIMENTS - LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
• HUMANISM - REJECTS SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• BEHAVIOURISM - CAN’T OBJECTIVELY STUDY UNOBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR
• INTROSPECTION IS SUBJECTIVE
• MACHINE REDUCTIONISM
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 53

53. COGNITIVE APPROACH EVALUATION
• THE INFORMATION PROCESSING PARADIGM OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
VIEWS THAT MINDS IN TERMS OF A COMPUTER WHEN PROCESSING
INFORMATION.
• HOWEVER, THEIR ARE IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUMANS AND
COMPUTERS.
• THE MIND DOES NOT PROCESS INFORMATION LIKE A COMPUTER AS
COMPUTERS DON’T HAVE EMOTIONS OR GET TIRED LIKE HUMANS.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 54

54. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCTION
•BIOLOGY IS DEFINED AS THE STUDY OF LIFE (FROM THE GREEK
BIOS MEANING ‘LIFE’ AND LOGOS MEANING ‘STUDY’). A
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE IS RELEVANT TO THE STUDY OF
PSYCHOLOGY IN THREE WAYS:
1. COMPARATIVE METHOD: DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ANIMAL CAN
BE STUDIED AND COMPARED. THIS CAN HELP IN THE SEARCH TO
UNDERSTAND HUMAN BEHAVIOUR.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 55

55. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCTION
• 2. PHYSIOLOGY: HOW THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND HORMONES WORK, HOW
THE BRAIN FUNCTIONS, HOW CHANGES IN STRUCTURE AND/OR FUNCTION
CAN AFFECT BEHAVIOUR. FOR EXAMPLE, WE COULD ASK HOW PRESCRIBED
DRUGS TO TREAT DEPRESSION AFFECT BEHAVIOUR THROUGH THEIR
INTERACTION WITH THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
• 3. INVESTIGATION OF INHERITANCE: WHAT AN ANIMAL INHERITS FROM ITS
PARENTS, MECHANISMS OF INHERITANCE (GENETICS). FOR EXAMPLE, WE
MIGHT WANT TO KNOW WHETHER HIGH INTELLIGENCE IS INHERITED FROM
ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT.
EACH OF THESE BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS, THE COMPARATIVE, THE
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND THE GENETIC, CAN HELP EXPLAIN HUMAN BEHAVIOUR.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 56

56. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT
• KEY CONCEPTS
• NATURAL SELECTION / EVOLUTION
• ADAPTATION
• HEREDITY / GENETICS
• NOMOTHETIC (STUDIES THE GROUP)
• REDUCTIONIST
• INSTINCTS / SOCIOBIOLOGY
• COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 57

57. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT
• METHODOLOGY
• LAB EXPERIMENTS
• CORRELATION STUDIES
• TWIN RESEARCH
• NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS (KETTLEWELL)
• ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF RESEARCH
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 58

58. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT
• BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
• PSYCHOLOGY SHOULD BE SEEN AS A SCIENCE, TO BE STUDIED IN A
SCIENTIFIC MANNER (USUALLY IN A LABORATORY).
• BEHAVIOUR CAN BE LARGELY EXPLAINED IN TERMS OF BIOLOGY (E.G.
GENES/HORMONES)
• HUMAN GENES HAVE EVOLVED OVER MILLIONS OF YEARS TO ADAPT
BEHAVIOUR TO THE ENVIRONMENT.
• THEREFORE, MOST BEHAVIOUR WILL HAVE AN ADAPTIVE /
EVOLUTIONARY PURPOSE.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 59

59. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT
• AREAS OF APPLICATION
• GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
• ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR
• IQ
• RELATIONSHIPS
• THERAPY
• STRESS
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 60

60. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT
• STRENGTHS
• VERY SCIENTIFIC
• HIGHLY APPLICATION TO OTHER AREAS: BIOLOGY + COG = EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
• HELPED DEVELOP COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
• STRONG COUNTER ARGUMENT TO THE NURTURE SIDE OF THE DEBATE
• MANY EMPIRICAL STUDIES TO SUPPORT THEORIES
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 61

61. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT
• WEAKNESSES
• EXPERIMENTS – LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
• HUMANISM: TOO DETERMINISTIC – LITTLE ROOM FOR FREE-WILL
• DOESN’T RECOGNIZE COGNITIVE PROCESSES
• BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OFTEN OVER-SIMPLIFY THE HUGE
COMPLEXITY OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR INTERACTION WITH THE
ENVIRONMENT.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 62

62. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 63

63. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
• WE CAN THANK CHARLES DARWIN (1859) FOR DEMONSTRATING IN THE IDEA
THAT GENETICS AND EVOLUTION PLAY A ROLE IN INFLUENCING HUMAN
BEHAVIOUR.
• THEORISTS IN THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE WHO STUDY BEHAVIOURAL
GENOMICS CONSIDER HOW GENES AFFECT BEHAVIOUR.
• NOW THAT THE HUMAN GENOME IS MAPPED, PERHAPS, WE WILL SOMEDAY
UNDERSTAND MORE PRECISELY HOW BEHAVIOUR IS AFFECTED BY THE DNA
WE INHERIT.
• BIOLOGICAL FACTORS SUCH AS CHROMOSOMES, HORMONES AND THE BRAIN
ALL HAVE A SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCE ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR, FOR EXAMPLE
GENDER.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 64

64. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
• THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH BELIEVES THAT MOST BEHAVIOUR IS
INHERITED AND HAS AN ADAPTIVE (OR EVOLUTIONARY) FUNCTION.
• FOR EXAMPLE, IN THE WEEKS IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE BIRTH OF A
CHILD, LEVELS OF TESTOSTERONE IN FATHERS DROP BY MORE THAN 30
PER CENT.
• THIS HAS AN EVOLUTIONARY FUNCTION.
• TESTOSTERONE-DEPRIVED MEN ARE LESS LIKELY TO WANDER OFF IN
SEARCH OF NEW MATES TO INSEMINATE.
• THEY ARE ALSO LESS AGGRESSIVE, WHICH IS USEFUL WHEN THERE IS
A BABY AROUND.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 65

65. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
• BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS EXPLAIN BEHAVIOURS IN
NEUROLOGICAL TERMS, I.E. THE PHYSIOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF THE
BRAIN AND HOW THIS INFLUENCES BEHAVIOUR.
• MANY BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE CONCENTRATED ON
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR AND HAVE TRIED TO EXPLAIN IT.
• FOR EXAMPLE BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS BELIEVE THAT
SCHIZOPHRENIA IS AFFECTED BY LEVELS OF DOPAMINE (A
NEUROTRANSMITTER).
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 66

66. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
• THESE FINDINGS HAVE HELPED PSYCHIATRY TAKE OFF AND HELP
RELIEVE HE SYMPTOMS OF THE MENTAL ILLNESS THROUGH DRUGS.
• HOWEVER FREUD AND OTHER DISCIPLINES WOULD ARGUE THAT THIS
JUST TREATS THE SYMPTOMS AND NOT THE CAUSE.
• THIS IS WHERE HEALTH PSYCHOLOGISTS TAKE THE FINDING THAT
BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS PRODUCE AND LOOK AT THE
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT ARE INVOLVED TO GET A BETTER
PICTURE.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 67

67. APPROACHES CONCLUSION
• THEREFORE, IN CONCLUSION, THERE ARE SO MANY DIFFERENT APPROACHES
TO PSYCHOLOGY TO EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR AND GIVE
DIFFERENT ANGLES.
• NO ONE APPROACH HAS EXPLANATORY POWERS OVER THE REST.
• ONLY WITH ALL THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGY WHICH SOMETIMES
CONTRADICT ONE ANOTHER (NATURE-NURTURE DEBATE), OVERLAP WITH
EACH OTHER (E.G. PSYCHOANALYSIS AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY) OR BUILD
UPON ONE ANOTHER (BIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH PSYCHOLOGIST) CAN WE
UNDERSTAND AND CREATE EFFECTIVE SOLUTIONS WHEN PROBLEMS ARISE SO
WE HAVE A HEALTHY BODY AND HEALTHY MIND.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 68

68. APPROACHES CONCLUSION CONT
•THE FACT THAT THERE ARE DIFFERENT APPROACHES
REPRESENTS THE COMPLEXITY AND RICHNESS OF HUMAN (AND
ANIMAL) BEHAVIOUR.
•A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH, SUCH AS BEHAVIORISM OR
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, TENDS TO IGNORE THE SUBJECTIVE
(I.E. PERSONAL) EXPERIENCES THAT PEOPLE HAVE.
•THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH DOES RECOGNIZE HUMAN
EXPERIENCE, BUT LARGELY AT THE EXPENSE OF BEING NON-
SCIENTIFIC IN ITS METHODS AND ABILITY TO PROVIDE
EVIDENCE.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 69

69. APPROACHES CONCLUSION CONT
• THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH CONCENTRATES TOO MUCH ON THE
UNCONSCIOUS MIND AND CHILDHOOD.
• AS SUCH IT TENDS TO LOSE SIGHT OF THE ROLE OF SOCIALIZATION
(WHICH IS DIFFERENT IN EACH COUNTRY) AND THE POSSIBILITY OF
FREE WILL.
• THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH REDUCES HUMANS TO A SET OF
MECHANISMS AND PHYSICAL STRUCTURES THAT ARE CLEARLY
ESSENTIAL AND IMPORTANT (E.G. GENES).
• HOWEVER, IT FAILS TO ACCOUNT FOR CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE
INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON BEHAVIOUR.
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 70

70. IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN NURSING
• IT EQUIPS THE NURSE WITH NECESSARY SKILLS TO INTERACT WELL WITH
OTHER MEMBERS OF THE HEALTH CARE TEAM
• IT ENABLES THE NURSE TO WORK WELL WITH FELLOW NURSES
• IT ENABLES THE NURSE TO UNDERSTAND HER OR HIS CLIENTS AND TREAT
THEM AS UNIQUE BEINGS
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 71

71. IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN NURSING CONT
• IT HELPS THE NURSE TO UNDERSTAND THE LEARNING PROCESS
• IT HELPS THE NURSE TO ANTICIPATE BEHAVIOUR FROM HER OR HIS CLIENTS
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 72

72. • THE END
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION
8/26/2019JONES H.M -MBA 73