Ancient Greece: The Golden Age

1. The Golden Age of the Early to Late Fifth Century B.C.

2. Athens’ Relations with Sparta
Art, Literature, and Thought
Democratic Reform and Rupture with Sparta
The Thirty Years Peace
Art & Culture Prior to the Peloponnesian War

3. With the defeat of the second Persian invasion, Greece could breathe a sigh of relief. But Persia was not defeated, not even remotely so. Here we'll examine the post-invasion developments in the Greek world, the continuing role of Persia in Greek affairs, the formation of the so called Athenian Alliance, and the beginning of what would become the 'Golden Age' of Greece, and particularly of Athens.

4. Despite their differences, Sparta and Athens had cooperated closely since the first Persian invasion, and Athens acknowledged Sparta as the military leader of the Hellenic League. However, with the defeat of the second invasion, two major points of contention arose.

5. The first issue was Sparta's request that all city-walls and fortification in north and central Greece be demolished: that would leave no secure base for a third invasion to operate from, while the Peloponnese would remain fortified as the bastion of the Greeks. The Athenians needless to say were not enthused by this, and decided against this policy.

6. To buy time, Themistocles travelled to Sparta and gave the impression that Athens would cooperate with this idea. After having stalled sufficiently (and being informed that the walls had been built up to a defensible height) Themistocles revealed the truth and asked Sparta to accept this status quo, which to its credit Sparta did.

7. The second issue dealt with the Ionian cities of Asia, which Sparta was not inclined to fight for, but which Athens sought to protect due to her connections with the Ionian Greeks. A major change in Greek policy took place when the regent Pausanias was recalled from his command of an expeditionary force against the Persians, and in his absence the non-Peloponnesian Greek forces placed themselves under Athenian command. While Sparta attempted to appoint a successor to Pausanias, he eventually withdrew, and Sparta did not attempt to impose its command on the fleet.

8. In the winter of 478-477 B.C. the Athenian Alliance took shape. It took a form similar to the Spartan Alliance, with two governing bodies (the Athenian state and a council of allies). The meeting place of the Alliance's delegates as well as the location of its treasury was the island of Delos (hence the Alliance's modern name - the Delian League).

9. When deciding on matters of policy, both governing bodies had to accept a proposal, and in other matters it operated on a similar basis to the Ionian League of the past generation. Unlike the Ionian League, the Athenian Alliance possessed a Hegemon (a leading state guiding the other allies) which lent it far more coherence and direction that the Ionians had mustered.

11. Athens, as head of the Alliance, provided a large portion of the military forces, and likewise assessed the contributions of the other states (i.e. whether they would contribute ships or money, and how much of each, as well as levying troops). These assessments were done initially by the Athenian statesman Aristides the Just (a man known for his scrupulous fairness and honesty).

12. After campaigning for several years against the Persians, the decisive moment occurred at the Battle of the Eurymedon river c.467 B.C. Here the Persians had been gathering a large fleet and army, likely with the intent to advance into the Aegean as a precursor to a third invasion.

13. However, the Alliance struck first, led by the great Athenian General Cimon. The Allied navy followed the larger Persian fleet in towards the coast, where they succeeded in engaging them and wrecking many upon the shore. The Allies then landed an army which overran and destroyed the Persian army which had advanced to meet them. After this Cimon annihilated a Persian fleet en-route from Cyprus, and then finished the campaign by destroying what was left of the Persian Satrapy in Europe.

14. This battle decisively ended the threat of Persia to the Greek homeland, and the Greeks who died at Eurymedon were venerated for having guaranteed the freedom of their people.

15. While the Persian Wars had enhanced Sparta's prestige amongst the Greeks, the strain on Sparta itself had been immense. They had taken the greatest losses of any Greek state (with the exception of Athens), including some 500 Spartiates.

16. Likewise by fighting alongside the other peoples of Greece the Helots, Perioikoi, and the Spartans themselves were exposed to many foreign influences. Chief among these were temptations of the wealth and power generated by the wars, to which several high ranking Spartans succumbed.

17. This decline in prestige of the Spartan kingship brought the Ephors as well as the Gerousia more power, and these conservative institutions exerted a tighter grip on the internal affairs of the Spartan state, and while some pressed for Sparta to reclaim its leadership in the Hellenic congress, it was for now content to enjoy a dual leadership role with Athens.

18. This decision not to contest the growing power of Athens was a wise one, for in the decades after the victories of Plataea and Mycale the Spartans had to contest both a rising by the Messenian Helots (the Third Messenian War) as well as rival states in the Peloponnese, for which all its strength was needed.

19. The successes of Athens and its allies gave the population great confidence, and built up a solidarity between the richer classes who made up the army, and the poorer who manned the fleet. Though the Generals had acquired more importance and power due to the prolonged period of conflict, the power of ostracism could be utilized ruthlessly by the Assembly to bring statesmen they feared to heel.

20. At the same time the Areopagus council had gained in prestige due to its handling of the evacuation of Attica during the war, and used its discretionary powers to lead Athens along a steady path (for example by defeating excessively populous measures that might unbalance the state and its constitution).

21. One of the most decisive moves made by the Assembly was the ostracism of Themistocles: though he had masterminded the victory over Persia, his policy of opposing both Persia and Sparta was seen as reckless, and it was suspected he lacked strong moral fibre. Ultimately he fled to the court of the Persia, where he lived well in the King's service.

22. It was Cimon who was chosen by the Athenians to wield great power and to set forth his policies, which included war with Persia but also friendship with Sparta. Through his efforts Athens built a Thalassocracy in the Aegean and enjoyed heights of power and influence unseen before.

23. However, it was now presented with a choice: either live within the bounds of its current power (for it was unlikely further gains could be made against Persia), or break with Sparta and turn towards other Greek states to expand. It was this decision which would define the future of the Greek world.

24. While the Persian Wars were being fought in Greece, in the western colonies a war nearly as great was taking place. The great power of Carthage, knowing that no help could be expected from the Greek homeland, launched an invasion of Sicily, intent on conquering the entire island.

25. Their plans were dashed however at the Battle of Himera where Gelon, the tyrant of Syracuse, crushed the Carthaginian army, forcing Carthage to sue for peace and ensuring they would not trouble the island again for the next 70 years.

26. Gelon was celebrated as a hero, and though the services of the various tyrants of Sicily greatly strengthened Hellenism there, they in time made themselves hated and were in turn overthrown and replaced by democracies in most of Sicily.

27. While the cities of Italy were too disunited to extend their political powers far inland, their very presence greatly affected the peoples of the peninsula, including an insignificant little city in rustic Latium: Rome.

28. In many ways the generations that lived under military threat from Persia (c.546-466 B.C.) were some of the most productive and revolutionary in the spheres of art and culture. The artistic and intellectual developments of the Greek world in this era subsequently influenced both Western and world culture to a huge degree.

29. One of the key elements that must be understood about this period was that radical changes were occurring. Just as the political and social landscape of Greece was being altered, the intellectual scene was being drastically revamped. This can perhaps best be demonstrated by comparing the great poets Pindar and Xenophanes, while contrasting their particular styles and the views that informed them.

31. Pindar was perhaps the greatest composer of Choral Poetry, and worked throughout the first half of the 5th century B.C. Two of the major themes that appear in his work are a veneration of the Gods and ancient heroes, as well as the nobility of personal sacrifice in favour of the group or state.

32. These were traits that resonated most strongly with the Dorian peoples, of which Pindar was one.

33. In contrast to this stands the poet Xenophanes. The greatest of the Ionian poets, in various Elegiacs he denounced the Gods as man- made fictions along with other conventional ideas of the era. Instead he espoused the idea of a single God that was utterly different from humanity (unlike the anthropomorphised Olympians).

34. He likewise roundly condemned the idea that humans as material creatures could have any concrete idea whatsoever about the workings of the divine, merely opinions on the subject.

35. These two men, representative of their peoples’ outlooks on life, demonstrate the developing gulf between the two. On the one hand the Dorian's favoured religious conservatism, which was anathema to the Ionian ideas of free thinking, while Doric ideals of corporate responsibility were at odds with the claims of individualism. While it would be impossible to make a complete and utter divide between these two branches of the Greek people, this dichotomy shows very broadly how different types of thinking were evolving at the time.

36. One of the great examples of how Greek intellects dealt with the seeming contradictions mentioned above was in the works of the Athenian Playwright Aeschylus. In his works the themes of the divine are examined, specifically the idea that the world is governed by the principles of order and of justice, and how these interacted with one another.

37. This forms the theme of his great 'Oresteia' trilogy (the only complete trilogy of any Greek playwright to survive down to our day), where the principle of justice is directly opposed to the principle of order, and ultimately the two are reconciled (after a fashion).

38. The idea behind Aeschylus plays was that while it may appear unintelligible to individuals, justice and order do play out but in a much grander scale in the lives of families and nations.

39. While this did appeal to a people where community often overrode individual concerns, in later days examples of characters lamenting this state of affairs became more common (in the plays of Euripides for example) where many contemporaries believed the individual more important than the group.

40. While many playwrights had merely put their personal spin on the ancient religion, others cast it aside entirely. Pythagoras was more inclined to Xenophanes views of the world, and rejected the idea of the Gods.

41. Rather, he developed a philosophy that postulated on the nature of the soul using scientific ideas from geometry, arithmetic, and harmonics.

42. His work was subsequently attacked by Heraclitus of Ephesus, who postulated his own system of beliefs based on the idea of ever present change. He famously espoused the idea of no person being able to step in the same river twice.

43. He in turn was rejected by Parmenides of Elea, who entirely rejected that our senses can tell us anything of the world, and that only through abstract reasoning could we learn anything of the universe.

44. Needless to say subsequent philosophers would continue to debate and attack these and other ideas, but this gives a brief taste of just how contentious these schools of thought could be and how dynamic the intellectual landscape of the day was.

46. An interesting point when regarding the three great philosophers mentioned above is that all three hailed from Ionia. The Ionians, having settled away from the Greek homeland, were less beholden to ancient practices and ancient myths, while their reason operated without the restraints of religion. Consequently, many of the earliest of the great thinkers of Greece hailed from this region.

47. While it is impossible to go into much detail in this short passage, the numerous other developments of the time are interesting both in themselves, and for what they can tell us about the age in which they occurred.

48. History had long been recorded in verse by poets such as Homer, but in these later days that the Ionians set their minds to recording history in prose writing. Likewise, where earlier writers had tended to merely record the tales they had heard, this new generation of writers were less beholden to storytelling, and cast a more critical eye upon their subjects.

49. Geography too saw great strides, as throughout the era merchants and sailors (be they Greek or Phoenician) travelled as far afield as modern England, West Africa, and India. While Africa had been circumnavigated by the early 6th century, the interiors of the various continents remained largely a mystery.

50. Nonetheless, Greek writers were able to present maps c. 500 B.C. showing the major seas and rivers of the known world, while around the same time Hecataeus of Miletus wrote the first general description of the world, laying down the foundations for much of history and geography.

51. Medical knowledge advanced with a startling rapidity, with concepts such as physiology and embryology emerging (though it was somewhat hampered by a lack of human dissection, mutilating the dead being taboo).

52. Likewise, Comedy flourished, and is revealing of its audience: for much that has come down to us could only have been appreciated by a rather cultured audience, giving an insight as to the general level of education and social awareness in Greece at the time.

53. Finally, in the arts of painting, sculpting, pottery, architecture, and coinage, great feats of technical mastery were accomplished in this time period.

54. Among the best known must stand the Black Figure Pottery and Red Figure Pottery of Athens, works of art so masterful that they declined in the latter half of the 5th century for sheer lack of competition.

55. As well, two of the great canonical styles of Greek architecture emerged in this age: the Doric Order and Ionic Order, with the former coming to dominate the Greek mainland and the western colonies.

58. To conclude, this was a time of such ceaseless progress in virtually all fields of human endeavour that it can truly be said to herald the beginning of a Golden Age for the classical Greek world.

59. With the danger of Persian invasion at an end the Athenian Alliance no longer served a purpose... for the allies. To Athens the alliance brought wealth and power, and just because the allies wished to leave didn't mean they would be allowed to do so.

60. With the victory of Eurymedon the danger of Persia was vanquished. However this blessing also held a curse, for the one factor uniting the Greek world had disappeared, and now the selfish goals of each faction once more came to the fore. In Athens this was expressed by the rupture between the Assembly and the Areopagus council. While the Areopagus had enjoyed great popularity immediately after the Persian Wars this had begun to decline, in part because the ex-Archons who populated it had been appointed by lot as opposed to popularly elected, weakening their popularity and legitimacy.

61. While the Athenian's great war leader Cimon supported the Areopagus, the young populist reformers Ephialtes and Pericles vigorously opposed it, and brought many members to trial on charges of corruption and abuse of power. While their efforts were for a time successfully opposed by Cimon, he himself was busy over these years with new challenges.

62. The first was the attempt by the Athenian ally Thasos to secede from the Alliance, which Athens had no intention of allowing. Thasos was successfully besieged and forced to remain in the Alliance, losing its city-walls, fleet, and gold mines in the process, while setting an example of what other faithless allies could expect if they tried the same thing.

63. The second issue which saw Cimon out of Athens involved Sparta. While Thasos had appealed to Sparta for aid, timing made this impossible. For in 464 B.C. Sparta suffered a massive earthquake, levelling the town of Sparta and killing some 20,000 people, including many of the Spartan ruling class.

64. If this were not enough, the chaos generated by this event caused an uprising among the Helots of Laconia and Messenia. The Spartans took up arms and rallied to their King, but the situation was grim, and they faced annihilation. The intervention of their allies as well as Athens saved the day, but during the second expedition to assist the Spartans, the reforms of Ephialtes and Pericles were pushed through the Assembly.

65. While the exact details of these reforms are not known, the result was that the Areopagus was stripped of nearly all of its power, and reduced largely to a subsidiary court. Henceforth the power of the Assembly and the Heliaea would be limited only by their own restraint (though they generally respected the established laws). The Council of 500 was now the sole executive body, and the government of Athens could now be described properly as a Demokratia, a state where power was held by the Demos (people).

66. When word of this reform reached Sparta, they unceremoniously dismissed the Athenian troops serving there, knowing full well the hostilities of the democratic faction to them. After Cimon's ostracism in 461 B.C., Athens allied with Thessaly and Argos (likewise hostile to Sparta). The age of the dual leadership of Greece was at an end.

67. The policy of Athens from 461-454 B.C. can be summed up rather succinctly as war against both the Persians and the Peloponnesians. Athens' citizen population had grown by this period to probably 40,000 or so, with a hoplite force between 10-12,000 in size. Likewise, it could man and fight a fleet of some 200 triremes by itself, while the more powerful allies (most now contributing money) could probably muster a similar number of ships.

69. This gave Athens a bigger army than any individual Peloponnesian state, and a navy larger than those of several of the most powerful states of the Spartan Alliance combined. In its conflict with the Peloponnesians Athens' army performed indifferently but not poorly (losing the Battle of Tanagra but inflicting heavy casualties on the Peloponnesian army), while the naval war was another matter.

70. The Athenian fleet spent the better part of this conflict ravaging the coasts of the Peloponnese and destroying the navies of Sparta and its allies one by one, while seriously impeding the ability of the Peloponnesian army to operate outside its peninsula. Athens would likely have been far more successful had it ended its offensives against Persia, but these continued, first at Cyprus, and then assisting the Egyptians in a full scale uprising.

71. While for a time it looked as if Egypt might actually break free of the Persian Empire (and perhaps prompt its complete disintegration), the Egyptian army was beaten and made peace, while the Athenian Alliance forces were trapped and wiped out. The loss of so many ships and troops (an estimated 100 triremes and thousands of personnel) put Athens onto the defensive.

72. Likewise the allied states, who would derive no benefit from Athenian victories in the Peloponnese and who had provided many of the troops and ships lost in Egypt, were growing disillusioned with Athens leadership. In the winter of 454-453 B.C. many of the allies decided to revolt with the support of Persia.

73. While he was not the foremost military commander of the time, this era marks what many would call the 'Age of Pericles'. With the death of his compatriot Ephialtes, Pericles assumed leadership of the democratic faction in Athens. Pericles was a natural leader, a talented general, politician, and orator, who instilled confidence in his followers and friends while inspiring Athens with his vision of just how great the city could become.

74. Broadly speaking, his primary goal was to strengthen democracy in Athens, and his primary concern was for his state and his fellow citizens. These selfless goals won him acclaim amongst the majority of Athens’ population, while his aristocratic lineage and scrupulous honesty with public funds marked him out exceptionally well.
Under his leadership Athens became yet more democratic: the Archonships were opened to the hoplite class, the powers of the Areopagus further diminished in favour of the Heliaea, and in addition to new courts public pay for holding office was instituted so that even the poorest citizens could contribute to society

75. He also realized that to fund and maintain this democracy the Athenian Alliance would have to become an Athenian Empire. He moved to institute a 5-year truce along with the recalled Cimon, which was to last from 451-446 B.C.
In 450 B.C. Cimon led an Athenian force to Cyprus, where despite his death a series of Greek victories convinced Persia to begin negotiating with Athens, and in 448 B.C. a peace treaty finally ended the half- century of war that had began with the Ionian Revolt.

76. Persia acknowledged the independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and Athens recognized Persian rule over Egypt and Cyprus. Peace also ended the original purpose of the Athenian Alliance, but by now most allied states were so powerless vis-à- vis Athens that simply leaving it was impossible.

77. All but a handful had given up the full burden of carrying the military effort to Athens, and Athens was able to maintain control in these states via three major institutions: enforced 'democratic' governments sworn to loyalty, commissioners from Athens to oversee these governments, and Cleruchies settled in these states (on the best lands) to act as garrisons. In this way the Alliance was gradually converted into an Empire.

79. Sparta however was not done with Athens despite its own problems. A short war broke out with the end of the 5-years truce, which saw Athens lose influence in much of mainland Greece. The resulting Thirty Years Peace saw both sides swear to forego any aggression against one another or their allies, while any neutral state could join either side if it wished.

80. In the end result, Athens had grown over the last generation to become vastly more wealthy and powerful than any other state (the exception being that its army remained inferior to Sparta's), but the Athenian Empire's power was Athens' alone, as its 'allies' were oppressed and resentful.

81. Sparta, though weakened by disaster and war, was seen as a champion of Greek liberty (in the political sense), and its role as leader of the Spartan Alliance was one of both strength and moral authority: the Strength of the Spartan Alliance was that of all its states, not just its leader. This was the state of affairs as the Greeks entered into the next phase of their tumultuous history.

82. With peace came time to rebuild, and both Athens and Sparta made good use of it. This period saw great strides made by both in what was ultimately not a lasting end to Pan-Hellenic animosity, but the prelude to a far greater struggle. Outlined here are the events that transpired during the so-called Thirty Years Peace, and how Athens reached heights of power and culture so great that the results would echo down the millennia to our own day.

83. The Thirty Years Peace established a fair and stable framework for the two power blocs to work within. Assuming that its provisions had been obeyed, it may well have evolved into a lasting peace, Athens and Sparta resuming their positions as co-Hegemons of Greece. For 14 years the treaty was observed, and in that time the Spartan Alliance managed to rebuild its fleets and commerce, while Sparta itself recovered from the earthquake and Helot uprising.
Athens too utilized this time, expanding and consolidating its empire. Both sides likewise abided by the provision to respect the other alliance and the rights of neutrals to join them, such as when much of mainland Greece joined Sparta, and when Athens crushed uprisings amongst its allies.

84. Pericles policies of expanding the empire continued, opposed by the Athenian statesman Thucydides, son of Melesias. Thucydides pointed out the moral travesty that was Athens treatment of its allies, to which there really was no rebuttal.

85. Pericles however instituted policies which brought the empire's wealth to the majority of the population: improved festivals, rebuilt temples, pay for service with the fleet, and new lands for settlers and Cleruchies. He likewise argued that tribute was paid by the allies for security, and since Athens provided that security, the money was hers to do with as she pleased. Ultimately the people decided, and Thucydides was ostracised (shockingly, people will often choose money over morals).

86. While Athens continued to expand and prosper, a new test arose in the form of the Samian War. The island of Samos was engaged in a border dispute with the city of Miletus, both of which were Athenian allies. Samos however was a powerful state that still contributed ships to the Alliance military, while Miletus had been forced back into the Alliance on much worse terms.

87. Naturally Samos believed Athens would side with her, but when Athens demanded that Samos submit to its arbitration, the Samians rebelled. Though the conflict was hard fought, Samos ultimately surrendered, and re-entered the Alliance on far harsher terms.

88. This was a wakeup call to the allies: Samos had been the most powerful of Athens' allies, and it had been thoroughly crushed. There could be no hope for any of the rest, and this served as notice to one and all that Athens had indeed moved from leading an alliance to ruling an empire.

89. After the relocation of the Athenian Alliance's treasury from Delos to Athens in 454-453 B.C., this money for all intents and purposes went directly into Athens’ pocket. Furthermore, the Athenians continued the annual levying of tribute, collecting vast sums from their 'allies' and essentially doing what they pleased with it.

90. With this money Athens maintained fleets and fortifications, built temples and public works, paid citizens serving in Athens and overseas, and building up a healthy reserve of funds in Athens itself. While in peacetime tribute was vastly higher than expenses, in war money would be consumed with alarming speed, so such reserves of funds were necessary if an actual sense of security was to be maintained.

91. As for the subject-allies themselves, they derived great benefits from their membership in the empire, with both security and economic prosperity. The Greeks however almost universally prized political liberty over economic interest, and many resented Athens dominance over them.

92. As for Athens itself, decades of hegemonic benefits had seen it prosper as never before. By 431 B.C. Attica contained an estimated 400,000 people (of which some 168,000 were Athenians, 200,000 slaves and the rest foreign aliens of some classification or another). The spectacular growth of the middle class alone saw it capable of providing some 23,000 hoplites by this period as opposed to the 10,000 60 years earlier at Marathon.
Population
400,000
100%
Slaves
200,000
50%
Athenians
168,000
42%
Foreigners
32,000
8%
Hoplites
23,000
5.75%

93. This prosperity was a hallmark of the Athenian Democracy, and even critics had to admit as much. The democratic system excelled at its stated purpose, which was to ensure the dominance of the people in the state (and of Athens over its subjects). The wealthy prospered enormously, while the lower classes held the empire and manned the fleet, which created this prosperity. For this reason the common people were seen as having the right to sway the Athenian state and its politics.

94. What was truly remarkable though was the sheer amount of business and the level of complexity that the elected officials were called upon to handle. While a few of the highest offices were restricted to the upper class, the great majority of the Assembly (which itself consisted of all citizens) had served on the Council of 500, as jurists in the courts, or as government magistrates of some form.

95. Likewise, nearly all would have served overseas as soldiers, sailors, or as magistrates. Not only were positions of political power readily occupied by virtually all social classes, but the average citizen developed an extremely in-depth knowledge and experience of political and judicial administration. Indeed, it can safely be said that this level of political and social engagement by the citizenry has never, ever been equalled before or since in any state worldwide (including in modern day Canada).

96. The only real anomaly in this system was that some of the magistracies with the greatest responsibility were occupied by men of high influence and wealth, and as there was no limit to the number of one-year terms for the Generals, men could use this office to maintain themselves in power. In this timeframe the people altered the method of electing Generals: now only 9 tribes would elect one (leaving one unrepresented) and one would be popularly elected by the people and was thusly acclaimed the outstanding man of the year.

97. Pericles enjoyed this privilege for 15 years! But he did not do so through trickery or guile, rather it was the respect in which the people held him that saw such unprecedented power thrust into his hands. Under his leadership Athens had prospered, and in the legendary Funeral Oration of Pericles, he set out his views on the nature of the Athenian state: namely, that Athens was a state that sought to ensure equal rights for all its citizens, and that it trusted in the intelligence and sense of duty of the average citizen.

98. This was the ideal to which Pericles had strived all his life, which created the environment that the incredibly rich Athenian civilization emerged from, and which he inspired in his countrymen. Truly, for all the faults of the Empire of Athens, it is unlikely that any nation has or ever will match the Democracy of Athens.

99. The Middle of the fifth century saw a blossoming of culture among the Greeks. Material prosperity had reached new heights, while travel and trade allowed for the free exchange of ideas. both from within and outside the Greek world. Hundreds of city-states shared a collective Greek culture, each with their own unique institutions and character, embodying an age of confidence. While religion played an important role in Greek life, it was also an age of intellectual enlightenment, with experiments in politics, thought, and art taken to new heights. Indeed in some ways it was an age of culture which has yet to be equalled.

100. Sculpture in this age reached a point of high technical development, with heroic motifs ever present. The work of the sculptor Polyclitus stands as representative of the period's work. His sculpture the Doryphorus is one of the most well known examples of his work, achieving a balance of relaxation with vigour, and spiritual grace with physical perfection which characterized his view of heroic man.

101. Likewise Phidias of Athens stands as one of the great artists of the age. While many of his works have perished through the ages, the world famous statuary of the Parthenon was created under his direction, and can be seen as indicative of his style. The surviving pediments boldness and dynamism is combined with an extreme attention to detail, all of which combines into Phidias characteristic 'precision and sublimity'.

102. The Parthenon itself stands as the greatest example of Ancient Greek material culture, as well as being one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. Designed by Ictinus and Callicrates, the Parthenon was commissioned by Pericles as a part of his ambitious building project with the goal of beautifying Athens, that the city might physically reflect its power and wealth.

103. Among the other structures constructed on the Acropolis at this time was the Propylaea, which was to serve as the gateway to the Acropolis. Though millennia have passed it still stands as a tribute to the skill of the day, with its harmonious union of Ionic grace and Doric strength.

104. The very reason for our detailed knowledge of this period in history is thanks in large part to one man: Herodotus of Halicarnassus. Born on the edge of the Greek world, he was but a child during the great Persian invasion of Greece. In his later life however he traveled extensively, forever curious about the world and the peoples who inhabited it.

105. He did not merely seek out curious facts, but likewise asked questions as to how and why the world had come to this state of affairs. Hence the title of his great work, The Histories (history meaning 'to inquire'). While his methodology may have been somewhat limited (exaggerated numbers or incredulous stories being taken at face value) by and large his work is one of an experienced and discerning mind.

106. Likewise, despite his young age at the time, he spoke with men who had lived through the wars, and as such stands as one of the three greatest primary sources we have for Greek history (to be followed by Thucydides and Xenophon). The opening to this great work sums up the spirit of Herodotus (and indeed all historians).
This is the Showing forth of the Inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassos, to the end that 1 neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse of time, nor the works great and marvellous, which have been produced some by Hellenes and some by Barbarians, may lose their renown; and especially that the causes may be remembered for which these waged war with one another.

108. The widespread communication and travel also benefitted philosophy, and many original thinkers in the age postulated new ideas and vociferously attacked those of others.

109. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae argued that matter was composed of a variety of particles, and different objects possessed their characteristics based on the relative preponderance of one type or another. Birth, growth, and death were merely stages in the arrangement of particles over time. Mind however he made an exception for, which he described as the purest substance, and that where it exists it exerts control.

110. Empedocles of Acragas postulated that there were four root elements (earth, fire, water, and air) and two active forces which operated upon them (love and strife). There is also an almost theological element here, as it seems to indicate that in the past love dominated and all the world was at peace, while in Empedocles' own day it was strife in the ascendant, thus the war and violence ubiquitous in the world. Likewise his death was much discussed and mythologized, and may itself shed light on his philosophical system.

111. The Philosopher Zeno of Elea likewise left behind some interesting insights in the form of his paradoxes (most famously Achilles and the Tortoise).

112. Perhaps most interestingly the Philosophers Leucippus and Democritus pioneering an idea that matter was composed of tiny, indivisible units called 'atoms', preceding the scientific verification of this view by thousands of years.

114. In this age when the power of religious belief was coming up against the newfound rationalism, the playwright Sophocles sought to guide his fellow citizens on this intellectual journey. Sophocles served Athens in many political capacities and had ties of friendship to many great men of the day, but his greatest service to Athens (and humankind writ large) was derived from his works.

115. These focused on individuals caught in the great overarching plans of the Gods, and though they cannot control their fate, they are free to face it as they so choose. As such he portrayed humanity at its best, facing adversity with honesty and courage.

116. Unlike Aeschylus, Sophocles focused not upon groups but rather individuals. Among his innovations, he eventually discarded the trilogy, reduced the amount of the choral lyrics, increased the importance of dialogue, and added a third actor. His chorus likewise delivered religious and social commentary, while his plays allowed his audiences to observe the noblest exemplars of humanity face their destinies and achieve understanding.

117. When he died at the age of 90, Sophocles' beloved Athens was in turmoil, having broken the written and unwritten laws of the world which his plays had been founded upon, and having seemingly lost the favour of the Gods whose will had to be faced rather than changed, he nonetheless spoke with a voice ultimately having faith in his city, humanity, and the Divine.