Byzantium: 1081 - 1149 A.D.

1. The Crusades Begin
1081 – 1149 A.D.

2. The Crusades
The Normans
The First Crusade
Success Beyond Belief
The Beautiful Soul
The Last Years of Alexius
John the Beautiful
The Second Crusade

3. Less than fifty years after the death of Basil II, the hard work of centuries had been undone, and Byzantium brought to its knees. With the ascension of Alexius I Komnenos as emperor a glimmer of desperately needed hope emerged, but almost immediately would be challenged by the Empire’s many foes. In his attempts to enlist the aid of fellow Christians from Western Europe against the new Turkish foe, Alexius would inadvertently help to trigger one of the most dramatic and well known events in human history: the Crusades.

4. Since the early 11th century the Normans (descendants of Viking raiders who had settled in what is now northern France) had been fighting in south Italy, first for pay as mercenaries and eventually for payment in the form of land.

5. Over time they consolidated their power here, and by 1075 A.D. southern Italy and Sicily had come under the rule of one man, perhaps the greatest military adventurer to live between the eras of Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte: Robert Guiscard.

7. This energetic ruler had hoped to marry one of his daughters off to the son of the emperor Michael VII, but when this arrangement fell apart he dispensed with the pretext and prepared to launch an invasion of the Empire.

8. In 1081 A.D. Robert landed in what is now Albania and besieged the city of Dyrrhachium, and for four months this continued until the imperial army arrived under Alexius command to relieve the city. In the ensuing battle, the Byzantines (despite fighting valiantly) were defeated, and the emperor withdrew to rebuild his forces.

9. Robert however was called back to Italy to deal with the political issues there (including his rescue of the Pope), and Alexius was able to mobilize his forces for a counterattack.
Pope Gregory VII

10. By the end of 1083 A.D. the Normans had been reduced to a tiny sliver of territory in the Balkans. In an attempt to reverse this turnaround Robert returned to the Balkans (after leading a brutal sack of Rome), but found less immediate success, and in the summer of 1085 A.D. he died after falling ill.

11. After this, the gravest of the Empire’s many threats having passed, other lesser enemies were likewise vanquished and a modicum of peace restored. This culminated in the defeat and destruction of the Pechenegs in 1091 A.D. For the first time in his ten year rule, Alexius could look to the future with a sense of confidence.

13. In 1094 A.D. the Pope invited Alexius to send representatives to a council of the western church. While not overly concerned with theological issues, he saw here an opportunity to appeal for western aid against the Turks, who had persisted in their hostility to the Empire.
Pope Urban II

14. The possibility of retaking the territories lost in the aftermath of Manzikert appeared feasible, but the Empire lacked the resources to do so on its own. With western military assistance, it just might be possible.

15. The result was more than he expected. The Pope, greatly impressed by this proposal, laid out the basis of his proposal at the Council of Clermont.

16. Calling for assistance to be lent to their fellow Christians, he promised absolution for the sins of all who ‘took the cross’ and joined in this endeavour, which was to become known to history as the First Crusade.

17. Alexius was less than enthused by this idea. He had wanted a professional army to lend him aid, not a vast horde of untrained miscreants. Moreover, he now had to feed and escort these people through his empire, lest they get out of hand and attack his people.

19. An initial group known as the ‘People’s Crusade’ (consisting mostly of civilians) ventured into the Empire, after being ferried to Anatolia was eventually destroyed by the Turks.

20. However, soon some 80,000 ‘professional’ crusaders began arriving under a variety of noble leaders from Western Europe. One of these was Bohemund, son of Robert Guiscard, who intended to set up a new realm in the east.

21. He cheerfully acknowledged his previous hostility to Byzantium, and willingly swore and oath to the Emperor (as was required of all the Crusade’s leaders).

22. By the time the last crusaders had crossed over into Asia, Alexius had overseen the transit of some 100,000 people across his domain, and was justifiably satisfied with the way in which the Empire had handled this less than welcome influx.

24. Despite all expectations to the contrary, the first crusade was a huge success. The summer of 1097 A.D. saw Nicaea fall to the crusaders and Byzantine sovereignty in western Anatolia restored.

25. The year after Antioch was taken following a siege of immense brutality which saw several failed relief attempts by neighbouring rulers.

26. July 15th 1099 A.D. the crusaders entered Jerusalem, restoring it to Christendom for the first time since the reign of Heraclius, almost half a millennia before.

28. Trouble however, was not far off. Many of the crusaders were motivated by religious piety, but many simply had their own interests in mind. It was evident that the many among the nobility leading the crusade wished to create new realms in the east under their own rule.

29. Alexius had established two conditions these aspiring rulers had to follow. The first was that these new realms would not be established on former imperial territory, the entire point of the crusade ostensibly being the liberation of the Empire’s territories. The second was that these new rulers would acknowledge Alexius as their suzerain (playing off the western European institution of feudalism).

30. Conflicts pursued by these ‘crusader states’ spread not only to the local Arab and Turkic states, but to the Byzantines as well. Likewise, many of the crusaders who had been motivated by religious conviction had returned home in disgust after witnessing the atrocities committed during the campaign.

31. The new land of Outremer (French for ‘overseas’) was thus largely composed and inhabited by those who had sought personal gain from the crusade. Bohemund (who had become ruler of Antioch) returned to Europe to gather reinforcements, and convinced the Pope of Byzantine treachery (despite the fact it was he who had failed to live up to his pledge to the Emperor).

32. Denouncing the Byzantines, the crusaders now saw their irrational hate of the eastern empire vindicated by the highest authority, while the Byzantines saw the crusades for what they really were, a land grab by greedy western European nobility.
While Bohemund was defeated in battle and once more swore fealty to the emperor, the seed of hatred and mistrust had been planted between the two sides, and even more damage done to the fragile relationship between the eastern and western churches.

33. With the ending of the first crusade Alexius could turn from foreign concerns to focus on the Empire’s many domestic issues. While his long reign was marked by difficulty and strife, ultimately he succeeded in preserving the Empire, and gave the opportunity to his successors to return it to greatness: an opportunity they would make good use of.

35. While Alexius fought tirelessly for the Empire, he was by the end of his reign not a well-loved man. Indeed, many in the Empire disliked him greatly. While the common people suffered under the attacks of a multitude of enemies, the imperial family appeared to do quite well. This was not entirely nepotism, as the political situation called for those who could be absolutely trusted to be put in power (and usually the most trustworthy people are family), but Alexius may have gone a tad too far in this.

36. As well, while Alexius did defend the people against their enemies, to do so required a rebuilt army and navy, and this required money, lots of it.

37. Onerous taxes oppressed both the rich and poor alike.

38. The tribulations of the common person were not in vain however. Alexius did not engage in all these practices for his own aggrandisement, but to halt the half-century decline the Empire had been in. In this he was ultimately successful, while also dispensing charity and good works where and when he could.

39. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, he assured that there would be a smooth father to son succession, and this cannot be understated. Despite all the accomplishments of Basil II and his predecessors, that ruler’s failure to produce an heir led to the decline and catastrophe which Alexius had done so much to reverse. By ensuring the ascension of his son John, Alexius guaranteed that just as the Empire had stabilized during his 37 year rule, it would flourish during those of his successors.
Emperor John II

40. When he died on August 15th 1118 A.D., he could go to his grave content in the knowledge that he had done his duty and more to the Empire. His deeds would be commemorated by his beloved daughter, princess Anna Komnene, in her great work The Alexiad.

41. The eldest child of Alexius, Anna was highly educated, and demonstrated an immense intellect. When writing the history of her father’s reign, she quotes extensively from classical Greek and biblical texts, and shows a powerful grasp of the politics and personalities of her day. Even now, nearly a thousand years later, she holds fast to her title as one of the first and greatest of female historians.

42. The new emperor, John II Komnenos, had a unique title: the beautiful. This was not because he as physically handsome, in fact by all account he was quite unattractive. Rather, this reflected the quality of his character, or soul if you will. He was highly principled, banishing gossip and rich living from his presence, and selflessly dedicated his time and efforts to serving the Empire.

43. At the same time he bestowed generosity and charity lavishly, showing a genuine care for his people. Likewise, in an age when horrific, brutal cruelty was often the norm, he never ordered a single person to be tortured or killed, preferring more merciful punishments for infractions.

44. For all this and more, he has been called by some the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius, after the wise philosopher emperor who lived nearly a thousand years before him.

45. Like his father, he was dedicated to restoring the greatness of the Empire, and to some observers it seemed as though his entire life was one long campaign. Unlike his father’s day however, the western borders of the Empire were relatively quiet, allowing him to focus on what had ostensibly been the entire purpose of the crusade: the re-conquest of Anatolia.

46. By this time those areas outside of imperial control were divided amongst a number of Turkic states, and against these John campaigned constantly and successfully.
Byzantium c.1100 A.D.

47. While the emperor had to deal with occasional bouts with the Venetians, Hungarians, and Serbs, the majority of his efforts focused on the lands lost to the Empire after Manzikert.

48. What caused John no end of trouble however were the crusader states that had been established in Outremer.

49. These upstarts had alternatively fought and allied with the Byzantines, though when they did ally it was usually under compulsion from the newly rejuvenated empire.

50. It was when attempting to deal with the treacherous rulers of Antioch that John was mortally wounded in hunting accident.

51. Before succumbing to his injuries, John crowed his son Manuel as his successor, ensuring an orderly succession just as his own father had.

52. Upon his death in 1143 A.D., he left his son an empire more expansive, powerful, and respected since the disaster at Manzikert over seven decades before.
Byzantium c.1143 A.D.

53. Moving swiftly, Manuel Komnenos secured his throne, and moved to continue his father’s work of punishing Antioch. However, events would soon transpire that caused a radical realignment in the political scene.
Manuel I Komnenos

54. The crusader state of Edessa fell to the Turkic ruler Zengi in 1144 A.D. This event horrified Europe, and led the remaining crusader states to realize that the balance of power was shifting against them.

55. An appeal to Europe led to the launching of the Second Crusade, which consisted primarily of French and German armies.

57. While Manuel was less than inclined to allow a second mass inclusion through his empire, agreements were made, and the various crusading armies passed through to aid the states of Outremer.

58. The result, unlike the first crusade, was a disaster. Rather than focus on Nur ad-Din, the successor to Zengi, they sought to seize Damascus and thereby alienating the only major Arab state opposing him.

59. While some were destroyed by the Turks in Anatolia, those crusaders who did get through to the holy land were ineffective in their attempts to seize Damascus, and retreated in ignominy. This was a great boost to the Arab and Turkic states in the area, and a disgrace to Western European arms that would not be fully erased for centuries.

60. One success that sprang from the Second Crusade was the conquest of Lisbon. Crusaders setting out from England became waylaid in Iberia, where they met with the Portuguese king, who convinced them to aid in his conquest of the city. Their success here was a major boon to the ongoing Reconquista in Iberia, and a decisive moment in Portuguese history.