This document summarizes major events and rulers of the Byzantine Empire from 857-963 AD. During this time, the Macedonian dynasty rose to power and oversaw a golden age. Religious disputes continued but the Empire also converted Slavic peoples to Christianity. Emperor Basil I came to power through violence but proved an effective ruler, expanding the Empire. His successors like Leo VI and Constantine VII further strengthened Byzantium through legal and administrative reforms while achieving military successes against external threats like the Arabs.

1. A New Dawn
857 – 963 A.D.

2. Rise of the Macedonians
Patriarchs and Plots
Double Murder!
Basil the Macedonian
Statesmen and Scholars
Leo the Wise
Romanus Lecapenus
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus – The Scholar Emperor

3. As the Empire became increasingly strong and decisive, a new breed of Emperors was needed. These circumstances led to the rise of the Macedonian Dynasty, which would rule the Byzantium until the 11th century and oversee the golden age of Byzantine civilization.

4. While Iconoclasm was no longer a force to be reckoned with, the opposite extreme now proved to be an issue. The ascension of an extremist Iconodule Ignatius to the Patriarchal throne and his subsequent exile caused grave tensions, with the Pope unable or unwilling to intervene when called upon to do so. Eventually negotiations with the Papacy got underway, but became acrimonious when the Pope refused to accept the exile of Ignatius, who as an Iconodule supported Papal supremacy (something the Pope did not wish to forego).
Patriarch Ignatius

5. As if this were not bad enough, in 860 A.D. a massive fleet of the Rus arrived off Constantinople, pillaging and terrorizing the surrounding countryside.

6. While this highlighted the danger of the Barbarians, these peoples of the north also presented an opportunity in the religious sphere. The work of two brothers, Saints Cyril & Methodius, helped to spread Orthodox Christianity among the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe.

7. Cyril is likewise credited for the creation of the Cyrillic Alphabet.

8. This script was designed to allow the Slavic languages to be written down, which in turn allowed for the translation of the Bible and other texts.

9. But just as it was hoped converting the peoples of Eastern Europe to Christianity would increase Byzantine influence, religion could be a two edged sword. When his demands for the creation of a Bulgarian Patriarch were ignored by Constantinople, the Bulgar Khan Boris I appealed to the Pope in Rome.

10. Pope Nicholas I devoted much effort to winning over the Bulgars, and subsequently saw them adopt western as opposed to eastern Christianity (much to Byzantium's chagrin).

11. While the Emperor Michael III was physically courageous, he eventually declined into drunkenness and debauchery. Fortunately his uncle Bardas was on hand to rule for him, and Bardas' ten years of effectively governing the Empire saw many great victories, military and otherwise.

12. Michael III however would inadvertently doom them both with his befriending of a lowly peasant from Macedonia (though ethnically Armenian), named Basil. While Basil was rapidly promoted by his new best friend the Emperor, he became fixed on nothing less than the Imperial throne itself

13. First however, Basil had to deal with a few 'obstacles' first. In 866 A.D. when preparing for an expedition to retake Crete from the Arabs, Bardas was killed by Basil, who claimed that Bardas had been planning some form of treachery (dubious, as Bardas already effectively ruled, and due to his rank and position had some claim on the throne should the Emperor die childless, which looked likely).

14. Shortly thereafter Basil was acclaimed by Michael III as co-Emperor (surely some sort of record, he went from a stable boy to Emperor of Byzantium in 9 years!).

15. This power sharing arrangement lasted less than a year and a half, as Michael III was degenerating badly and became a liability. Likewise the favour shown by Michael to other courtiers potentially threatened Basil’s position. Thus, on 24 September 967 A.D. Michael III was murdered by Basil and a group of conspirators, while the public reacted with little interest or regret.

16. The new sole Emperor, Basil I The Macedonian, almost immediately attempted to settle the dispute with the Papacy, as it was military and not theological matters that interested him.
Emperor Basil I

17. While he did manage to patch things up with Rome to a degree, this was spoiled shortly thereafter by a question asked by the Bulgars regarding which church they belonged to, east or west?

18. The Byzantines won out here, and though Rome was displeased, they Bulgars were back in the Orthodox fold (a significant victory for Byzantium).
Pope Adrian II

19. But it was on the field of battle that Basil I really shined, putting great pressure on the Saracens, retaking virtually all of Southern Italy, and building up the navy to make it the envy of its rivals, continuing the trend of success started under Bardas and which would continue well into the future.

20. Byzantine Empire c.867 A.D.

21. Though his penchant for violence is obvious from the above facts, he was a highly effective ruler even in the more subtle arts of governing. He overhauled the legal code of Byzantium, chose the leadership of the Patriarchate wisely, and initiated the most important building program in the Empire since Justinian the Great.

22. One thing he did manage to do that Justinian I had not was to reproduce, copiously, and had 4 sons ready to succeed him. While he loved his eldest (whose death as a young man devastated Basil) he despised his second son Leo. Leo however, was extremely popular outside his own family, and upon Basil I death in 886 A.D., assumed the throne.
Emperor Leo VI

23. While Basil allegedly died in a hunting accident, there is speculation that he may have been assassinated. If this were the case, some would argue that given the extreme bloodshed and brutality of is rise to power, it would not have been entirely undeserved (despite all the good he had done for the Empire).

24. With the death of Basil a new series of more refined, some might say dignified, emperors took the throne. For all their polish, these men were no less effective in heading the great ship of state that was Byzantium, and wore the title of Roman emperor well. This era encompassed the reigns of the emperors Leo VI, Romanus Lecapenus, and Constantine VII: three men who saw Byzantium through some of the greatest years of its existence.

25. Coming to power upon the death of his father, Leo VI commenced with the revision and recodification of Roman law. Largely based upon Justinian’s earlier work, it had the advantage of being systematically arranged and being written in Greek (Latin having died out in the last several centuries in all but the scholarly classes).

26. Arguably the most significant changes were the revocation of the ancient rights of both the Curia and the Senate: now the Emperor was enjoyed absolute power in all fields save only the theological.

27. With regards to foreign relations, border conflicts with the Bulgars drew away valuable forces from other fronts

28. This had the effect of allowing the Arabs to complete the conquest of Sicily, and to launch offensives on the eastern frontier.

29. However, Byzantine military successes continued regardless: the issue most likely to destabilize the Empire being the Emperor’s personal life. Leo went through a record four marriages before he produced a male heir, and in doing so caused considerable controversy and tension within the religious establishment (generally the Orthodox Church limited men to a second marriage only, three had been a stretch, and four was an unprecedented outrage).

30. Nevertheless, Leo did get the needed dispensation for this marriage, and the infant who would become Constantine VII was secured in his succession.
Empress Zoe and Constantine VII

31. While Leo’s reign may have lacked the excitement of some, his reforms in law, administration, and the military were much needed, and he died beloved by his people, having left the Empire in better shape than he had received it.
Leo VI and Constantine VII

32. Byzantine Empire c.900 A.D.

33. Upon Leo’s death his brother Alexander assumed the throne (ruling for only 1 year before his death), and caused much damage during his brief rule.
Emperor Alexander III

34. When his nephew Constantine VII was enthroned as a child- emperor, struggles among the little ruler’s caretakers led to the general Romanus Lecapenus becoming his ‘protector’.
Romanus I Lecapenus

35. Romanus swiftly married his daughter to young Constantine, and was himself made co-emperor. It seemed that perhaps young Constantine would be disposed of as soon as his usefulness was at an end.

36. Romanus soon appointed three of his sons as co-emperors (bringing to total number of rulers to 5) and succeeded in achieving peace with the Bulgars.
Romanus I & Christopher Lecapenus

37. Having secured its western flank, Byzantium turned to the east, where its frontiers had been fundamentally stable for the past two centuries. In 926 A.D. the campaigns in the east began, and by 934 A.D. the Arab emirate of Melitene had been conquered (the first such state to be conquered and incorporated into the Empire), marking the first large scale offensive into what was traditionally Saracen territory.

38. In 941 A.D. a massive Russian raid on the Empire inflicted brutal atrocities on the region of Bithynia, but the Imperial counterattack butchered the invaders, and soon peaceful relations were established with these northern invaders.

39. Towards the end of his life, Romanus became theologically obsessed, worried for his immortal soul due to his seizure of power. While he attempted to confirm Constantine as his senior successor, his sons removed the old Emperor from power and sent him to a monastery. However, the people loved Constantine (much to his own surprise), and when a plot was revealed to kill him, the sons of Romanus were likewise exiled.

40. While Romanus may have been a colourless individual who seized power for his own advantage, he had also been a good and successful ruler, and in the end had seen to it that power was put into the hands of the Empire’s legitimate heir. For all this, he must ultimately be looked well upon.

41. Assuming full power at the age of 39, Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (‘the purple born’, having been born to a reigning emperor) was a noted scholar, who displayed a range of talents and took a special interest in the Empire’s systems of justice and higher education.
Emperor Constantine VII

42. Two of his works (‘De Ceremoniis Aulae Byzantinae’ and ‘De Administrando Imperio’) have come down to us as invaluable sources on Byzantium and the world at large during his time.

43. As well, he was unfailingly polite to people of all social classes and never lost his temper, helping to build on the affection his subjects. He also excelled in choosing men for positions of power, and under his generals the military successes that had characterized Romanus Lecapenus reign continued.

44. His impressive personal characteristics combined with Byzantium’s growing power impressed foreign dignitaries and scored important diplomatic successes to compliment the military ones.

45. He also improved the status of peasants in the Empire, at the expense of the wealthy aristocratic families known as ‘the powerful’. These people had vast wealth, properties, and power, and held little loyalty to the crown (many indeed wishing to possess it). However, Constantine managed to implement reforms without arousing these clans too seriously.

46. When he died in 959 A.D. his son Romanus II took charge, with the future looking bright.

47. Military successes continued under the Empire’s generals, first and foremost the great solider Nicephorus Phocas. In a campaign running from 960-961 A.D. he led 50,000 imperial soldiers in the re-conquest of Crete, re-establishing Byzantine rule there for the first time in almost a century and a half.

48. Moving to the east, he led crushing victories over the great Arab general Saif al-Daula.

50. Returning from the front in 963 A.D. victorious, Nicephorus and his army were shocked to learn that the Emperor Romanus II was dead.