From the 9th century BC to the 6th century BC, several significant developments occurred in ancient Greece that helped establish Greek civilization. The Greeks began keeping detailed written records of events and transactions. They also began using more durable materials like stone and bronze for writing. This period saw the rise of the Greek city-state as the primary political unit, with many city-states founding colonies abroad to establish trade networks and export excess population. Warfare evolved from heroic combat to organized battles between hoplite infantry from rival city-states. Greek society transitioned from monarchies to aristocracies and sometimes tyrannies, with some city-states developing early democratic political systems.

1. From the End of the Dark Ages to the Sixth Century B.C.

2. The Sources of Knowledge
Cultural and Political Revival
Colonial Expansion of the Greek City-States
Commercial Development of the Greek States
Warfare in the Age
Constitutional Developments
Religion and Culture

3. In the centuries that followed the Trojan War, Greece had been subject to massive disruptions and movements of population. By the middle of the ninth century (c. 850 B.C.) the situation had more or less stabilized, and the development of Greece from a war torn land of refugees into one of history's greatest civilizations finally began.

4. In this period the Greeks began to keep increasingly detailed records on all manner of things (Olympiads, king lists, state officials, etc). As well, writing proliferated as the various Greek states became heavily involved in commerce. More durable materials likewise came into use: where before writing might have been done primarily on wood and leather, the Greeks now engraved in stone and bronze.

5. Contemporary writers made good use of these records for their own literary works and histories, and many of these have come down to us via centuries of effort by scholars and monks in the middle ages. Some of the most notable works that were to come included those by Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato and Aristotle.

8. As well, the disciplines of archaeology, numismatics, and epigraphy act to help us scrutinize and confirm the claims of these sources.

12. As the chaos of the great collapse subsided, contact and then trade resumed between the lands of Greece and the Near East. While trade in various goods and the exchange of intellectual inspirations increased, the single biggest contribution of the Near East to Greece in this era (and by extension to our own time) was the Alphabet.

13. This system, derived from the Phoenician writing system, revolutionized written communications among the Greeks. Within short order many Greek cities had developed their own, slightly unique alphabets, which they would bequeath to their future colonies.

14. One of the other major events of this period was the formation of what would become the dominant unit of Greek social life: the City- State. As the isolated villages of the Greek Dark Age slowly expanded and banded together, they formed the cores of these durable new political units.

16. For all but the largest Greek States (ex. Sparta & Athens), each would consist of the primary city of that 'state', surrounded by its associated villages and agricultural lands. While the particular reasons for and details of their formation were unique to the individual City- States, the salient fact is that among all but the most primitive Greeks, this would be the new socio-political paradigm in which they lived.

17. By beginning of the eighth century (c.800 B.C.), the various Greek City-States began to found colonies abroad. The motivation to do so sprang from a number of factors, but one of the biggest was likely the need to find an outlet for growing populations. When it was decided to found a colony, an initial group of settlers led by a 'Colonizer' (Oikistes) would set out to establish the initial settlement. Often this would be on a small island or a coastal strip.

20. As hostile natives would often inhabit the area, the initial wave might be made up primarily of fighting men, while follow up waves would bring additional settlers. When the new colony was firmly established, it would be fully independent, with no political allegiance to the home city. However, the colonies would have imported their political system, religious practices, dialect, and other attributes from their home city, and so there would often be a strong residual feeling of connection and friendship between the two.

21. The Greeks proved to be prolific colonizers, spreading from their homeland to the Black Sea coasts, the Northern Aegean, the Marmara region, the Northwest of Greece & Illyria, Southern Italy & Sicily, the Mediterranean coasts of France and Spain, and even to North Africa in modern Libya & Egypt. In this way the Greeks gained access to all manner of peoples and good, while spreading their own culture throughout the far reaches of the ancient world.

22. As travel and communications recommenced after the Dark Age, trade made its way to and from the Greek cities. By far the most prosperous city of the time was Corinth, which sits astride the so- named Isthmus of Corinth.

23. Due to its unique position of having access to the sea routes going both east and west (as well as being able to move ships overland from one side of Greece to the other due to the narrowness of the isthmus), it enjoyed unparalleled commercial, colonial and financial prosperity.

24. While the exact nature of international trade at the time is somewhat hazy, it seems that the Greek colonies generally exported food and materials to the homeland, while the home cities exported fine pottery, ships, and other manufactured and luxury goods abroad, not merely to the colonies but all over the Mediterranean.

26. It was also in this timeframe that the first coinage was minted in Greece, starting in Lydia, and eventually spreading across the Greek world (and to Persia, whose coins were considered the finest in antiquity).

27. Warfare had by this time begun to change drastically from the dark ages. While before warriors might engage each other in 'heroic' style combat, either on foot or utilizing war chariots, the style of combat in Archaic Greece took on a decidedly less romantic tone.

28. As City-States grew in power and organization more men were involved in warfare, and tactics shifted appropriately. Cavalry became the decisive striking arm of the Greeks, however in the Peloponnese a new method of warfare had already emerged that negated the power of horsemen: Hoplite infantry.

29. These bronze-clad soldiers were armed with long spears and large, round shields (the Hoplon, from which they get their name), and by fighting in close ranks they could hold against even the most devastating cavalry charge.

31. Warfare had also taken on a more brutal character, with whole populations enslaved and cities laid waste, though rules and traditions were slowly emerging. Besides the occasional life-and-death struggle, most conflicts were merely border skirmishes, as states sought to acquire small parcels of land and national prestige.

32. In the migration period the various tribes and clans roving across Greece and the Aegean were led by men whom we would consider to be kings (Basileus).
As societies grew more complex and wealthy however, the circle of power would expand to the king's court and allies, leading to rule by the aristocracy.

33. Of the surviving kingships, the unique duel-kingship of Sparta was the most important. In some states the transition to aristocracy was unsuccessful for a variety of social and economic reasons, and in many cases a single man would seize power (a Tyrant).

34. This often precipitated bloody factional infighting inside the City-States, but even this had an eventual upside. The increasing prosperity and wealth which had brought on so many problems had also expanded the power of the lower and middle classes, and it was here that the first pseudo-democratic elements began to appear in the governance of some City-States as the upper class compromised some of its power to win the cooperation and allegiance of the common people.

35. While the Greeks were a notoriously independent minded people, there were some things that they all collectively shared. One of the common factors was religion, with sites such as the Oracle of Delphi having a common sacredness to all Greek peoples and states.

36. Likewise, the Greeks were held together by a common set of cultural ties, one of the best known being the Olympic Games.

37. Finally, the one thing that above all else defined the Greeks collectively was their language: while different dialects were prevalent, they all fell within the bounds of a common tongue.

38. It was thus that the world was divided: into the Greeks themselves (Hellenes), and those who were not and did not speak Greek (Barbaros, or Barbarians). In this way the Greeks, who often warred with one another both inside and outside their City-States, were united. In the coming years this unity would be sorely tested indeed.