This document discusses the benefits of intercropping annual crops like grains and legumes in young cashew plantations. Intercropping provides income to farmers during the 3-5 year period when cashew trees are not yet bearing fruit. It also helps control weeds, improve soil fertility through nutrient additions from crop residues, protect soils from erosion, conserve soil moisture, and make more efficient use of land resources to increase overall land productivity.
Mono-cropping involves growing a single crop on a piece of land each year, while multiple cropping or intercropping grows two or more crops simultaneously on the same land. Monoculture can increase yields but also degrades soils and increases pest risks over time. Intercropping utilizes resources more efficiently and provides greater yields, income, and crop failure protection than sole cropping. Common intercropping methods include row intercropping, strip intercropping, and relay cropping of cereals, pulses, and cash crops.
This document discusses arecanut-based intercropping and mixed cropping systems. It describes how intercropping involves growing short-term annual or biennial crops in the spaces between young arecanut palms. As the palms mature, mixed cropping with perennial crops better utilizes the partial shade. Popular intercrops include banana, black pepper, cardamom, cocoa, and vegetables. Intercropping increases land productivity and farmer income while the crop is establishing. Benefits include utilizing resources and controlling pests and soil erosion. Constraints can include drought, funds, technical knowledge, and pest/disease issues.
SALT is a diversified farming system which can be considered agroforestry since rows of permanent shrubs like coffee, cacao, citrus and other fruit trees are dispersed throughout the farm plot.
The strips not occupied by permanent crops, however, are planted alternately to cereals (corn, upland rice, sorghum, etc.) or other crops (sweet potato, melon, pineapple, castor bean, etc.) and legumes (soybean, mung bean, peanut, etc.).
Crop rotation refers to growing different crops in succession on the same piece of land. It helps maintain soil fertility through legumes that fix nitrogen. Crop rotation provides various benefits like increased yields, reduced costs from weeds and pests, and regular income. Principles of effective crop rotation include adapting to soil and climate, maintaining soil organic matter, and rotating between deep and shallow root crops. Other cropping systems discussed are intercropping, mixed cropping, relay cropping, and monocropping.
Situation of land holding in India….
Problems….
Solution….
-Multi layer farming….
Project introduction
Selected crop information
Project description
Basic principle of multi-layer farming
Benefits of multi layer farming
Conclusion
Cassava is the third most important source of calories in the tropics after rice and maize. It is grown mostly by smallholder farmers and low-income communities, especially women. Cassava production has increased by 100 million tons since 2000 due to rising demand in Asia. Cassava is well-suited to growth in marginal areas with poor soil and unpredictable rainfall due to its hardiness and ability to be grown with few inputs. The crop's increasing production offers opportunities for farmers to earn higher incomes and boost food supplies where needed.
Multilayer Cropping : Ideal approach for better yield and increasing farm incomeAntaraPramanik
In India mostly farmers (about 85%)comes under small and marginal farmers. In near future, availability of land for cultivation will be reduce with increasing population and rapid urbanization, degradation of land due to soil erosion and soil salinity.
As per estimate, in India more than 95% holding will be under the category of small and marginal holders by 2050 (Agrawal R.L., 1995) .
For solution of this problem, multi storied cropping system will be a potential and efficient option to provide food, nutritional and income security to the growing population of India (Awasthi O.P. et.al., 2008) . This has possible because of the diverse agro climatic condition, enormous biodiversity, wide variation in soil fertility, large cultivable land area in the geographical boundary of India. Multi-layer Cropping is a system of growing crops together of different heights at the same time on the same piece of land. It is also referred as multi-storied cropping or multi-tier cropping. Multilayer Cropping is based on the principle of high-density planting and making the ultimate and efficient use of manure, water, land, labour and vertical space.
This system of cropping also works on the principles of minimization of production cost and inputs use, development of organic and sustainable farming system in order to mitigate the use of chemicals and ensuring the food and nutritional security to each household.
Multilayer system of cropping is sustainable method of cropping that is cost effective and requires less labour . Therefore, people should be made aware of this type of farming system.
We know that many farmers in different countries are unwillingly killing themselves because they work hard in their land but they don’t get good production.
Farmers who are willing to do work are deprived of different resources like irrigation and good area of agricultural land. In this scenario, they can be motivated to do multi-layer system of cropping which can ultimately solves all these problem.
This system of cropping can helps to uplift the economic condition of farmer. The Multilayer Cropping System is indeed a boon to small & marginal farmers.
Mono-cropping involves growing a single crop on a piece of land each year, while multiple cropping or intercropping grows two or more crops simultaneously on the same land. Monoculture can increase yields but also degrades soils and increases pest risks over time. Intercropping utilizes resources more efficiently and provides greater yields, income, and crop failure protection than sole cropping. Common intercropping methods include row intercropping, strip intercropping, and relay cropping of cereals, pulses, and cash crops.
This document discusses arecanut-based intercropping and mixed cropping systems. It describes how intercropping involves growing short-term annual or biennial crops in the spaces between young arecanut palms. As the palms mature, mixed cropping with perennial crops better utilizes the partial shade. Popular intercrops include banana, black pepper, cardamom, cocoa, and vegetables. Intercropping increases land productivity and farmer income while the crop is establishing. Benefits include utilizing resources and controlling pests and soil erosion. Constraints can include drought, funds, technical knowledge, and pest/disease issues.
SALT is a diversified farming system which can be considered agroforestry since rows of permanent shrubs like coffee, cacao, citrus and other fruit trees are dispersed throughout the farm plot.
The strips not occupied by permanent crops, however, are planted alternately to cereals (corn, upland rice, sorghum, etc.) or other crops (sweet potato, melon, pineapple, castor bean, etc.) and legumes (soybean, mung bean, peanut, etc.).
Crop rotation refers to growing different crops in succession on the same piece of land. It helps maintain soil fertility through legumes that fix nitrogen. Crop rotation provides various benefits like increased yields, reduced costs from weeds and pests, and regular income. Principles of effective crop rotation include adapting to soil and climate, maintaining soil organic matter, and rotating between deep and shallow root crops. Other cropping systems discussed are intercropping, mixed cropping, relay cropping, and monocropping.
Situation of land holding in India….
Problems….
Solution….
-Multi layer farming….
Project introduction
Selected crop information
Project description
Basic principle of multi-layer farming
Benefits of multi layer farming
Conclusion
Cassava is the third most important source of calories in the tropics after rice and maize. It is grown mostly by smallholder farmers and low-income communities, especially women. Cassava production has increased by 100 million tons since 2000 due to rising demand in Asia. Cassava is well-suited to growth in marginal areas with poor soil and unpredictable rainfall due to its hardiness and ability to be grown with few inputs. The crop's increasing production offers opportunities for farmers to earn higher incomes and boost food supplies where needed.
Multilayer Cropping : Ideal approach for better yield and increasing farm incomeAntaraPramanik
In India mostly farmers (about 85%)comes under small and marginal farmers. In near future, availability of land for cultivation will be reduce with increasing population and rapid urbanization, degradation of land due to soil erosion and soil salinity.
As per estimate, in India more than 95% holding will be under the category of small and marginal holders by 2050 (Agrawal R.L., 1995) .
For solution of this problem, multi storied cropping system will be a potential and efficient option to provide food, nutritional and income security to the growing population of India (Awasthi O.P. et.al., 2008) . This has possible because of the diverse agro climatic condition, enormous biodiversity, wide variation in soil fertility, large cultivable land area in the geographical boundary of India. Multi-layer Cropping is a system of growing crops together of different heights at the same time on the same piece of land. It is also referred as multi-storied cropping or multi-tier cropping. Multilayer Cropping is based on the principle of high-density planting and making the ultimate and efficient use of manure, water, land, labour and vertical space.
This system of cropping also works on the principles of minimization of production cost and inputs use, development of organic and sustainable farming system in order to mitigate the use of chemicals and ensuring the food and nutritional security to each household.
Multilayer system of cropping is sustainable method of cropping that is cost effective and requires less labour . Therefore, people should be made aware of this type of farming system.
We know that many farmers in different countries are unwillingly killing themselves because they work hard in their land but they don’t get good production.
Farmers who are willing to do work are deprived of different resources like irrigation and good area of agricultural land. In this scenario, they can be motivated to do multi-layer system of cropping which can ultimately solves all these problem.
This system of cropping can helps to uplift the economic condition of farmer. The Multilayer Cropping System is indeed a boon to small & marginal farmers.
Author: Dr. T. M. Thiyagarajan, Dean Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India
Title: Understanding the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) for Sustainable Rice Production
Presented at: The International Conference on Climate Change, Biodiversity and Sustainable Agriculture
Venue: Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India
Date: December 13-16
The document discusses factors to consider when selecting a site for a new cashew plantation, including labor availability, infrastructure, and climatic and soil requirements. It also covers best practices for land preparation such as clearing, leveling, drainage and fire barriers. Proper planting techniques like spacing, staking, and irrigation are important for post-planting care of cashew plants to ensure optimal growth and yield during the critical establishment period. High density planting is also discussed as a method to increase productivity through thinning later on.
Soil conservation involves various management strategies to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil health. These include using cover crops, planting trees, terrace farming, no-till farming, contour plowing, crop rotation, intercropping, managing salinity, and promoting soil organisms. Governments have also implemented policies like the Conservation Reserve Program to encourage best practices. Proper soil conservation is important for sustaining nutrient cycles, water storage and filtration, and the overall basis of life on Earth.
Soil conservation involves various management strategies to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil health. These include using cover crops, planting trees, terrace farming, no-till farming, contour plowing, crop rotation, intercropping, managing salinity, and promoting soil organisms. Governments have also implemented policies like the Conservation Reserve Program to encourage best practices. Proper soil conservation is important for sustaining nutrient cycles, water storage, and the overall basis of life on Earth.
This document defines conservation agriculture as a concept for sustainable crop production that aims to achieve profits and high yields while protecting the environment. It has three key principles: minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop diversification. Conservation agriculture was developed in response to issues like soil erosion and degradation. It involves practices like no-till farming, cover cropping, and crop rotation to improve soil health, biodiversity, and water retention while reducing costs, pollution, and soil disturbance compared to conventional agriculture. The document provides details on the history, principles, practices, impacts, and limitations of conservation agriculture.
Zero tillage, also known as no-tillage, involves direct seeding of crops into untilled soil with minimal soil disturbance. It provides benefits such as conserving soil moisture, reducing erosion, and allowing timely sowing of crops. However, it also poses some challenges like increased soil compaction and potentially lower yields for some crops compared to conventional tillage. Overall, zero tillage is seen as an important conservation agriculture practice for improving the sustainability of cropping systems.
Multi-tier or multi-layer farming involves growing different crops at different heights in the same field simultaneously. This practice allows for maximum production from small land plots while minimizing risks and improving soil health. Some key benefits include increased income per unit area, reduced weed growth, and provision of balanced nutrition through mixed crops. Successful multi-tier farming requires selecting suitable crop combinations, optimizing soil properties, and establishing structures like trellises to facilitate growth at different vertical levels. Examples provided include combinations of coconut, papaya, pineapple and crops like banana, black pepper, ginger grown together.
Lecture 4 Plant density and geometry.pptxNavedulHasan4
Crop density and plant geometry are important factors that influence crop yield. The optimum plant population is the number of plants per unit area required to produce the maximum yield. Both too low and too high of a plant population can reduce yields. Different crop geometries include random, square, rectangular, solid row, paired row, and skip row arrangements. Factors that influence the optimum plant population include the size and growth habit of the plant, soil coverage, crop variety, sowing time, rainfall/irrigation levels, and seeding rates. Maintaining the proper plant geometry and population is important for maximizing resource use efficiency and crop yields.
conservation agriculture ; concept and technology interventiondeepakrai26
Conservation agriculture is an approach to managing agro-ecosystems that focuses on improved productivity, profits, food security, and preservation of resources and the environment. It has three key principles: continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover, and crop rotation. Direct seeding or planting with minimum soil disturbance is used to maintain soil cover, as are herbicides for weed control. Permanent soil cover protects the soil and benefits organisms and moisture levels. Crop rotation recycles nutrients and increases biodiversity below ground. Adopting conservation agriculture provides economic benefits through reduced costs and labor needs as well as improved soil structure and moisture over time, leading to agronomic and environmental benefits.
India needs to improve its food resources to feed its growing population. Methods used include the Green Revolution which introduced high-yielding crops, and the White Revolution which made milk more available. Crop yields have increased through variety improvement, better production practices like irrigation and fertilizer use, and protection from pests. A variety of crops are grown in different seasons across the country. Animal husbandry also helps meet food needs through practices like cattle farming, poultry, fisheries, and bee keeping.
climatic and soil factors in dryland farming in indian region, you will understand the different variations regarding the dryland farming and you can understand about the dryland techniques.
1. Hevea brasiliensis, commonly known as the Para rubber tree, is the primary source of natural rubber. It is native to the Amazon basin and was introduced to tropical areas of Asia and Africa in the late 19th century.
2. Rubber trees are cultivated by establishing nurseries to grow seedlings and budded plants. Seedlings are bud grafted with clones to propagate desired traits, then planted on farms.
3. Optimal growing conditions for rubber trees include well-drained, acidic soils; high rainfall; and temperatures between 20-34°C. Intercropping provides additional income during the trees' early years, though erosion risks must be managed on slopes.
Regenerative Agriculture for small scale farmers in the sub-humid tropicsFMNR Hub
Tools and techniques to maximize profits and build resilient farming systems and improve natural resources management in Zambia
By Sebastian Scott – Grassroots Trust
This note looks at crop rotation as one of the sustainable arable crop production practices. It describes the approaches to crop rotation, the benefits and the limitations of crop rotation. The note will serve as a valuable resource for higher ed students taking introductory courses in Agriculture.
Efficient crops and cropping systems in dry land agricultureSurendra Parvataneni
This document discusses efficient crops and cropping systems for dryland agriculture in India. It begins with an introduction to dryland farming and terminology. The main constraints in dryland farming are inadequate and erratic rainfall. Crop selection depends on length of growing period, genetic crop characteristics, and soil moisture availability. Common crops recommended are sorghum, pulses, groundnuts, and cotton. Cropping systems that can be used include mono-cropping, intercropping, relay cropping, and sequence cropping depending on rainfall and soil moisture storage capacity. Different regions of India are suitable for different cropping systems based on these factors.
Ley farming involves rotating grass or legumes with grain crops to improve soil fertility. It is a dynamic system where various annual and perennial crops are grown in both long and short term rotations. This improves soil nitrogen content, organic matter, controls weeds, prevents erosion, and improves livestock efficiency. While it requires time and investment, ley farming systems are more profitable than continuous cropping due to reduced costs and improved soil quality over time.
Sorghum is an important crop for food security in many arid regions. The document discusses sorghum production under spate irrigation systems in multiple countries. It finds that sorghum yields vary greatly between countries, indicating room for improvement. Eritrea achieves relatively high sorghum yields through efficient moisture management practices like compact command areas allowing for multiple irrigations, careful plowing and mulching. Ethiopia also relies on sorghum and has various recommended varieties suited to different altitudes. Overall the document analyzes sorghum cultivation methods and yields across spate irrigation systems to understand best practices.
This document discusses the importance of cover crops in conservation agriculture systems. It notes that a permanent year-round soil cover is central to conservation agriculture. It then discusses the benefits of soil cover, including protecting the soil, improving soil moisture and structure, and providing habitat for other organisms. The document outlines different types of soil cover, including living cover crops and mulch. It provides examples of cover crops and their characteristics. It discusses managing cover crops, including seed sources, planting methods, and challenges to adoption. Throughout, it emphasizes the importance of soil cover for sustainable agriculture.
The document provides information on the harvesting and processing of cashew nuts. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Cashew apples are harvested approximately two months after fertilization when the fruits have ripened. The fallen fruits are then collected by hand.
2) After harvesting, the nuts need to be dried properly in the sun for 3-4 days to reduce the moisture content below 9% to prevent fungus growth.
3) The dried nuts then undergo processing which includes shelling, drying of kernels to remove the testa, grading of kernels by size and quality, and packing in airtight containers to extend the shelf life. Proper hygiene and safety measures are followed during each processing step.
The document discusses the essential nutrient elements required by cashew plants. It outlines that carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are essential, along with 12 other elements that meet specific criteria to be considered essential. These elements are divided into macronutrients and micronutrients. The document then discusses the roles and deficiency symptoms of specific macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and micronutrients (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum) in cashew plants. It also provides some experimental evidence on the effects of deficiencies and toxicities of these elements from previous studies. Finally, it discusses methods for diagnosing nutritional disorders in plants, including
Author: Dr. T. M. Thiyagarajan, Dean Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India
Title: Understanding the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) for Sustainable Rice Production
Presented at: The International Conference on Climate Change, Biodiversity and Sustainable Agriculture
Venue: Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam, India
Date: December 13-16
The document discusses factors to consider when selecting a site for a new cashew plantation, including labor availability, infrastructure, and climatic and soil requirements. It also covers best practices for land preparation such as clearing, leveling, drainage and fire barriers. Proper planting techniques like spacing, staking, and irrigation are important for post-planting care of cashew plants to ensure optimal growth and yield during the critical establishment period. High density planting is also discussed as a method to increase productivity through thinning later on.
Soil conservation involves various management strategies to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil health. These include using cover crops, planting trees, terrace farming, no-till farming, contour plowing, crop rotation, intercropping, managing salinity, and promoting soil organisms. Governments have also implemented policies like the Conservation Reserve Program to encourage best practices. Proper soil conservation is important for sustaining nutrient cycles, water storage and filtration, and the overall basis of life on Earth.
Soil conservation involves various management strategies to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil health. These include using cover crops, planting trees, terrace farming, no-till farming, contour plowing, crop rotation, intercropping, managing salinity, and promoting soil organisms. Governments have also implemented policies like the Conservation Reserve Program to encourage best practices. Proper soil conservation is important for sustaining nutrient cycles, water storage, and the overall basis of life on Earth.
This document defines conservation agriculture as a concept for sustainable crop production that aims to achieve profits and high yields while protecting the environment. It has three key principles: minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop diversification. Conservation agriculture was developed in response to issues like soil erosion and degradation. It involves practices like no-till farming, cover cropping, and crop rotation to improve soil health, biodiversity, and water retention while reducing costs, pollution, and soil disturbance compared to conventional agriculture. The document provides details on the history, principles, practices, impacts, and limitations of conservation agriculture.
Zero tillage, also known as no-tillage, involves direct seeding of crops into untilled soil with minimal soil disturbance. It provides benefits such as conserving soil moisture, reducing erosion, and allowing timely sowing of crops. However, it also poses some challenges like increased soil compaction and potentially lower yields for some crops compared to conventional tillage. Overall, zero tillage is seen as an important conservation agriculture practice for improving the sustainability of cropping systems.
Multi-tier or multi-layer farming involves growing different crops at different heights in the same field simultaneously. This practice allows for maximum production from small land plots while minimizing risks and improving soil health. Some key benefits include increased income per unit area, reduced weed growth, and provision of balanced nutrition through mixed crops. Successful multi-tier farming requires selecting suitable crop combinations, optimizing soil properties, and establishing structures like trellises to facilitate growth at different vertical levels. Examples provided include combinations of coconut, papaya, pineapple and crops like banana, black pepper, ginger grown together.
Lecture 4 Plant density and geometry.pptxNavedulHasan4
Crop density and plant geometry are important factors that influence crop yield. The optimum plant population is the number of plants per unit area required to produce the maximum yield. Both too low and too high of a plant population can reduce yields. Different crop geometries include random, square, rectangular, solid row, paired row, and skip row arrangements. Factors that influence the optimum plant population include the size and growth habit of the plant, soil coverage, crop variety, sowing time, rainfall/irrigation levels, and seeding rates. Maintaining the proper plant geometry and population is important for maximizing resource use efficiency and crop yields.
conservation agriculture ; concept and technology interventiondeepakrai26
Conservation agriculture is an approach to managing agro-ecosystems that focuses on improved productivity, profits, food security, and preservation of resources and the environment. It has three key principles: continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover, and crop rotation. Direct seeding or planting with minimum soil disturbance is used to maintain soil cover, as are herbicides for weed control. Permanent soil cover protects the soil and benefits organisms and moisture levels. Crop rotation recycles nutrients and increases biodiversity below ground. Adopting conservation agriculture provides economic benefits through reduced costs and labor needs as well as improved soil structure and moisture over time, leading to agronomic and environmental benefits.
India needs to improve its food resources to feed its growing population. Methods used include the Green Revolution which introduced high-yielding crops, and the White Revolution which made milk more available. Crop yields have increased through variety improvement, better production practices like irrigation and fertilizer use, and protection from pests. A variety of crops are grown in different seasons across the country. Animal husbandry also helps meet food needs through practices like cattle farming, poultry, fisheries, and bee keeping.
climatic and soil factors in dryland farming in indian region, you will understand the different variations regarding the dryland farming and you can understand about the dryland techniques.
1. Hevea brasiliensis, commonly known as the Para rubber tree, is the primary source of natural rubber. It is native to the Amazon basin and was introduced to tropical areas of Asia and Africa in the late 19th century.
2. Rubber trees are cultivated by establishing nurseries to grow seedlings and budded plants. Seedlings are bud grafted with clones to propagate desired traits, then planted on farms.
3. Optimal growing conditions for rubber trees include well-drained, acidic soils; high rainfall; and temperatures between 20-34°C. Intercropping provides additional income during the trees' early years, though erosion risks must be managed on slopes.
Regenerative Agriculture for small scale farmers in the sub-humid tropicsFMNR Hub
Tools and techniques to maximize profits and build resilient farming systems and improve natural resources management in Zambia
By Sebastian Scott – Grassroots Trust
This note looks at crop rotation as one of the sustainable arable crop production practices. It describes the approaches to crop rotation, the benefits and the limitations of crop rotation. The note will serve as a valuable resource for higher ed students taking introductory courses in Agriculture.
Efficient crops and cropping systems in dry land agricultureSurendra Parvataneni
This document discusses efficient crops and cropping systems for dryland agriculture in India. It begins with an introduction to dryland farming and terminology. The main constraints in dryland farming are inadequate and erratic rainfall. Crop selection depends on length of growing period, genetic crop characteristics, and soil moisture availability. Common crops recommended are sorghum, pulses, groundnuts, and cotton. Cropping systems that can be used include mono-cropping, intercropping, relay cropping, and sequence cropping depending on rainfall and soil moisture storage capacity. Different regions of India are suitable for different cropping systems based on these factors.
Ley farming involves rotating grass or legumes with grain crops to improve soil fertility. It is a dynamic system where various annual and perennial crops are grown in both long and short term rotations. This improves soil nitrogen content, organic matter, controls weeds, prevents erosion, and improves livestock efficiency. While it requires time and investment, ley farming systems are more profitable than continuous cropping due to reduced costs and improved soil quality over time.
Sorghum is an important crop for food security in many arid regions. The document discusses sorghum production under spate irrigation systems in multiple countries. It finds that sorghum yields vary greatly between countries, indicating room for improvement. Eritrea achieves relatively high sorghum yields through efficient moisture management practices like compact command areas allowing for multiple irrigations, careful plowing and mulching. Ethiopia also relies on sorghum and has various recommended varieties suited to different altitudes. Overall the document analyzes sorghum cultivation methods and yields across spate irrigation systems to understand best practices.
This document discusses the importance of cover crops in conservation agriculture systems. It notes that a permanent year-round soil cover is central to conservation agriculture. It then discusses the benefits of soil cover, including protecting the soil, improving soil moisture and structure, and providing habitat for other organisms. The document outlines different types of soil cover, including living cover crops and mulch. It provides examples of cover crops and their characteristics. It discusses managing cover crops, including seed sources, planting methods, and challenges to adoption. Throughout, it emphasizes the importance of soil cover for sustainable agriculture.
The document provides information on the harvesting and processing of cashew nuts. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Cashew apples are harvested approximately two months after fertilization when the fruits have ripened. The fallen fruits are then collected by hand.
2) After harvesting, the nuts need to be dried properly in the sun for 3-4 days to reduce the moisture content below 9% to prevent fungus growth.
3) The dried nuts then undergo processing which includes shelling, drying of kernels to remove the testa, grading of kernels by size and quality, and packing in airtight containers to extend the shelf life. Proper hygiene and safety measures are followed during each processing step.
The document discusses the essential nutrient elements required by cashew plants. It outlines that carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are essential, along with 12 other elements that meet specific criteria to be considered essential. These elements are divided into macronutrients and micronutrients. The document then discusses the roles and deficiency symptoms of specific macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and micronutrients (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum) in cashew plants. It also provides some experimental evidence on the effects of deficiencies and toxicities of these elements from previous studies. Finally, it discusses methods for diagnosing nutritional disorders in plants, including
This document discusses two major insect pests that affect cashew plants: the stem and root borer (Plocaederus ferrugineus) and the tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii). The stem and root borer bores into and feeds on the stems and roots of cashew trees, potentially leading to branch and whole tree death. The tea mosquito bug feeds on young leaves, shoots, fruits and flowers, leaving black lesions and potentially causing fruits to drop prematurely. Management strategies for both pests include pruning wounds, applying pesticides, controlling weeds that may harbor the pests, and using biological controls like Weaver Ants for tea mosquito bugs.
The document discusses soil management practices for cashew plantations in Sri Lanka. It notes that cashew is commonly grown on various soil types ranging from coastal sands to laterite soils. Soil fertility varies widely between soils. Contour planting, contour drains, terracing, and cover crops are recommended to control erosion and increase organic matter, thereby sustaining soil productivity and cashew yields over the long term. Improper fertilizer and pesticide use can lead to pollution if not properly managed.
Cashew is commonly propagated through seeds, which results in genetic variation. Vegetative propagation through methods like grafting, layering, and cuttings conserves the desirable traits of elite mother plants. The document provides detailed instructions on seed collection, storage and sowing techniques. It also describes vegetative propagation methods and nursery management practices like transplanting seedlings, pest and disease control, and preparing plants for field planting. Maintaining proper growing conditions is important for high survival rates of propagated plants.
Genetic improvement of cashew is important to increase yields, resistance to diseases and pests, and adaptability to different environmental conditions. The key methods of genetic improvement discussed are controlling the mating system through techniques like cross-pollination and hybridization to generate genetic variability, followed by selection of desirable traits through artificial and natural selection. Selection criteria important for cashew include increased yield, tolerance to diseases and pests, and improved fruit quality. Sri Lanka has introduced several improved cashew varieties developed through these genetic improvement methods that have higher yields and other desirable traits compared to traditional varieties.
Soil conditions play a crucial role in successful cashew cultivation. Proper soil management, including maintaining suitable pH and texture, ensures optimal nutrient availability, root development, water retention, and disease resistance for healthy cashew trees and high yields. Soil testing is important to determine soil amendments needed to prepare the soil for cashew planting and ongoing fertility needs. Cashew also requires specific agro-climatic conditions and provides social benefits like employment and income generation in rural communities.
The document discusses the growth habits and characteristics of cashew plants. It provides details in 3 paragraphs:
1) Cashew plants are evergreen perennial trees that grow 12-15 feet tall. They have leathery oblong or ovate leaves arranged alternately. The bark secretes a resin for defense.
2) Cashew plants flower from dry weather. The flowers are polygamous, bearing male, female, and bisexual flowers. Pollination relies on insects.
3) The fruit is an edible apple enclosing the cashew nut. Both reach maturity in 60-90 days and fall from the tree.
This document provides an overview of the cashew industry, including its origins, production, consumption and health benefits. It discusses how cashews originated in South America but are now widely cultivated in many tropical countries. The top producing countries today are Côte d'Ivoire, India and Cambodia. Global cashew production was over 1 million metric tons in 2022. The document also outlines the nutrient profile and various health benefits of cashews, such as supporting heart health, weight management and bone strength.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
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2. • Growing one or more crops with a major crop is known as
intercropping.
• The perennial crops such as cashew, coconut, mango etc. have a
long gestation period compared to the annuals before coming to
the bearing stage.
• Therefore, income is not generated from young cashew plants
until bearing, which takes 3 to 5 years from planting.
• During this period, a considerable amount of money has to be
spent on cultural practices such as fertilizer application, weed
management, pest and disease control etc.
Introduction
3. • Therefore, the growers face the problem of incurring expenditure
without any income during this gestation period.
• When young cashew is planted, the land remains exposed to the
vagaries of weather until a canopy is formed to provide an
adequate ground cover.
• As a result, these fields are subjected to erosion, excessive evapo-
transpiration, and proliferation of weeds.
• In order to minimize such undesirable effects, it is necessary to
provide a ground cover by planting cover crops or using suitable
mulches.
4. • However mulching is restricted due to the unavailability of
recommended materials in adequate quantities and the high cost
involved (Wijeratne et al., 1994).
• Furthermore, growing cover crops and/or mulching will not provide
any direct financial gain to the farmers.
• As the inter row space of cashew is around 7-8 meters, this space
could be utilized to plant intercrops until it is fully covered by the
cashew canopy.
• Hence the farmers will be able to gain a considerable income by
intercropping cashew plantations during the unproductive, early
periods of 3 / 5 years after planting.
5. Potential of intercropping young cashew plantations
• Perennial crops such as coconut, rubber and cashew are
normally planted wide apart which permits optimum growth
and development of the canopy.
• During the immature period of these crops, considerable land
area is unutilized.
• Cashew is normally planted at a spacing of 7.6 X 7.6 m.
• Hence, the wider inter row space can be used for raising
intercrops until cashew canopy covers the inter row space.
6. • Rainfall, light and soils are the major factors influencing
successful intercropping systems with cashew.
• Cashew is grown predominantly as a rain fed crop in dry zone
areas of Sri Lanka.
• In the dry zone there are two rainy seasons from September to
January (Maha) and April to July (Yala).
• During the two rainy seasons these areas receive sufficient
rainfall, which reduces competition petition for soil moisture
between cashew and intercrops.
7. • Further these areas receive sample amounts of sunlight
throughout the year.
• In Sri Lanka over 80% of grain legumes are grown under rain fed
conditions in the dry zone and in some parts of intermediate zone
(Jayasekera et al., 1992).
• Therefore inter-row space of young cashew plantations could be
utilized to intercrop annual grain legumes and cereals.
• Abeysinghe (2001) reported that annuals such as grain legumes
and cereals can be successfully intercropped in young cashew
plantations.
8. Benefits of intercropping in cashew plantations
1) Extra income for farmers.
2) Smother weed growth.
3) Improve soil fertility.
4) Protect soils from erosion.
5) Conserve soil moisture.
6) Efficient utilization of resources to improve productivity of the land.
7) Create more employment opportunities.
8) Provide food for home consumption.
9. 1) Extra income for farmers
• The age at which a cashew tree starts flowering is influenced by
the growing conditions and probably by genetic factors.
• Cashew trees growing under favorable conditions may produce
their first crop at the age of 3 to 5 years (Mandal, 1997).
• Therefore, income is not generated from young cashew fields
during the first 3 to 5 years of the immature period.
• Cashew small holders are typically recognized as low-income
group who live in the dry zone with limited financial resources
and infrastructure.
10. • However various cultural practices such as land preparation,
fertilizer application, weed control and pest and disease control
need to be carried out during this immature period of cashew.
• Therefore, the growers are facing problems of bearing high
expenditure for cultural practices without any income during this
unproductive gestation period, even though subsidies are
available from the Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation.
• Hence, without an additional income during the immature stage
of cashew, the smallholders are little reluctant to cultivate
cashew in their lands.
11. • As there is no any income, often young cashew fields are
neglected and it leads to proliferation of weeds and casualties.
• During this period of immaturity, however, it has been possible to
utilize the inter-row space for growing selected annual crops that
would generate an income to the growers until cashew trees are
brought into bearing.
• However, results showed that crops cannot successfully be
intercropped with cashew beyond three years after the
establishment of cashew (Abeysinghe, 2001).
12. 2) Smother weed growth
• The main task after establishment of cashew plants is to control
excessive weed growth, which might otherwise severely deplete
soil moisture and compete for nutrients.
• Weed growth is seen to be maximum after monsoons and
harvesting becomes a problem if weeds are not removed.
• The production as well as productivity of cashew plantations in
Sri Lanka is quite low due to many factors including the problem
of weeds.
13. • Weed control is also the main problem especially in young cashew
plantations.
• The development of cashew seedlings in unweeded plantations is
very slow.
• Due to competition for light, water and nutrients, shoots of
cashew plant develop slowly and as a result, root development is
also slow.
• Depending upon the severity of weed infestation the yield
reduction of cashew is recorded to be between 60% and 70% (Abdul
Salam et al., 1993).
14. • Generally weed control is often the principal operation in tropical
cropping fields.
• Over 50% of total labour and 40% of production costs are spent on
weed control (Akobundu, 1980).
• Therefore the management of weed is needed in the cropping
fields.
• Sickle and slash weeding are the most common methods of weed
control adopted in cashew plantations.
• However, the cost and availability of labor are generally limited to
carry out these methods.
15. • Weed control can be achieved by mulching (Othieno, 1980) and alley
cropping practices (Jama et al., 1991, Rosecrance et al., 1992).
• However intercropping has the potential to control weeds.
• Plunekette et al., (1977) and Shetty and Rao (1980) have reported
that intercropping suppress weed growth.
• This is because of early canopy closure, which prevents light
penetration.
• The extent of this effect will depend on the leaf area index of the
component crops.
16. • It has been observed that well spread. dense canopy of pigeonpea
suppressed weed growth.
• Rao and Shetty (1976) reported that maize and cowpea were
more weed suppressive than groundnut.
17. 3) Improve soil fertility
• Soil fertility status can be improved by the incorporation of
intercrop residues with soil.
• The nutrient status of the soil is commonly improved by
intercropping (Onim et al., 1990), due to intercropped biomass, which is
incorporated into soil.
• Intercropping helps to improve soil fertility characteristics (Kendaragama
and Handawela, 1994).
18. • Improvement of soil organic matter and soil plant nutrient contents
could be seen by the incorporation of plant biomass with soil and it
substantially improves soil fertility. Gunaratne and Heenkende (1994)
• Better retention of soil fertility and lower soil temperatures in
intercropping systems lead to increased earthworm activity (Hulugalle and
Ezumah, 1991).
• Reduced soil temperature and improved moisture conditions due to
intercropping may favor multiplication and growth of some soil
microorganisms.
• Greater populations of active soil bacteria under maize/ legume
intercrops. Singh et al., (1986)
19. 4) Protect soils from erosion
• Intercrops cover the ground and protect soils from soil erosion.
• Improved ground cover contributes to reduce soil erosion,
particularly when species with spreading growth habits are used
as intercrops (Stoop, 1986).
• Alley cropping also helps to check soil erosion (Dharmasena, 1992).
20. 5) Conserve soil moisture
• Water infiltration to the soil and porosity of soil are improved due
to root activity of intercropping.
• The moisture environment immediately below the soil surface is
commonly improved by intercropping (Fukai and Trenbath, 1993),
as the soil surface under an intercrop is not as exposed
as in the sole crops.
21. • Therefore evaporative water loss from the intercropped area is
reduced. Lal (1989) has reported that soil moisture content in the
top 0-5 cm layer in agroforestry systems was generally
higher than that in control plots during both wet and dry
seasons.
• This is due to the reduced soil moisture evaporation and the
effect of shade provided by the intercrop.
22. 6) Efficient utilization of resources to improve
productivity of the land
• The cashew is a seasonal crop.
• It produces fruits once a year usually from March to July in Sri
Lanka (Pushpakumara, 1999).
• The national average yield of cashew is approximately 4-5
Kg/tree/year, which is far below the potential yield (8-10
Kg/tree/year) that obtained by many other countries (Wijeratna and
Jayasekera, 2000).
23. • Therefore productivity of cashew lands is very low when
maintained as monocultures, which is recognized as an inefficient
form of land use, providing low returns to growers.
• The excess land, soil nutrients, moisture and light which are not
used by cashew plants during the early period of cashew can be
utilized efficiently and there by increase productivity of the land.
• Annual food crops when intercropped with newly planted and
two year old cashew received 100% and 89.4% incident radiation
respectively (Abeysinghe 2001).
24. • This is expected because cashew plants are not tall enough to
provide shade during first two years.
• Hence, inter row space of newly planted and two year old cashew
plantations could be used for cultivation of other crops as
intercrops.
• In young cashew plantations, it has been reported that the
unutilized land area is as high as 80-90% (Abeysinghe, 2001).
• Therefore this unutilized land in young plantations could
effectively be utilized to raise intercrops.
25. 7) Create more employment opportunities
• Since cashew is a seasonal bearer, harvesting season is confined
to one to two months per year.
• It requires more Laboures only during harvesting and planting
seasons.
• Due to this reason most of the plantations and small holders use
temporary laboures.
• This creates an excess labour force during rest of the year
specially in cashew growing areas like Puttalam, Anuradhapura
and Hambantota.
26. • By planting intercrops in cashew plantations more employment
opportunities can be created.
27. 8) Provide food for home consumption
• Most of the small holding farmers who are in cashew growing
areas are poor and have limited land to cultivate.
• Hence, planting the field crops as intercrops or mixed planting
with cashew may provide not only an added income, but also
some food for daily consumption
28. Crops suitable for intercropping
with cashew
• Since only the immature period of cashew plantations (eg. first
two to three years) is recommended for intercropping, short term
crops such as annuals and semi perennials can be used as
intercrops.
• It is difficult to recommend a plantation crop or two for
intercropping with cashew.
• Many types of crops can be cultivated as intercrops.
29. • Selection of a crop depends on variety of factors such as, area,
rainfall, temperature, ability of the farmer to cultivate, availability
of planting material, marketing facilities, resources etc.
• The most common annual and semi perennial crops grown during
the immature phase of cashew are as fallows.
31. Selection of crops
• The annuals that are suitable for intercropping with cashew
normally be cultivated as rain-fed crops.
• Hence, suitable intercrops for different agro- ecological zones
and cultivations seasons should be identified.