Introduction on Instructional Materials

1. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
● Are classroom tools which enable teachers to put into practice what they believe about
how skills, attitudes, and knowledge are most effectively acquired by learners. They are
important shapers of teachers’ classroom behavior and beliefs, more important methods
courses, for no matter what they would like to do teachers depend upon materials, and if
they find the materials “work”, they believe in them, and therefore, in the ideas on which
the materials are based.
● Operationally, instructional materials are specifically designed classroom tools which
contain instructions to learners or teachers, and which specify for each increment of
learning (1) the content to be learnt, (2) the techniques of presentation, practice, and use
of that content, and (3) the modes of teaching associated with those techniques.
Definition of Terms:
1. Specially designed: learning and teaching materials are written and produced for specific
purpose. The materials are planned experiences to learners.
2. Classroom tools: materials are tools used by learners and teachers which may cause
learning to take place. The crucial factor is how they are used.
3. Instructions: the use of content in materials in planned.
4. The learners or teachers: materials are directed at either learners or teachers and
specifies how the learner is to use the material and how the teacher is to use the subject
matter of the book to teach the learner.
5. Content to be learned: subject matter and/or language content to be acquired or the skillful
use of the content specified to either a learner or a teacher.
6. Techniques of presentation, practice, or use of the content: sets of instructions to learners
of teacher to the contextualization of new language content and procedures for repetition
and transformation.
7. Mode of presentation, practice, or use of the content: a content is presented via a mode
such as book with specified format, tape recorder with a specified organization. The
teacher using specified actions or using specified objects is a mode of presentation.
What are considered as new instructional materials?
Those which requires teachers, learners, and the materials themselves to play new
classroom “role”. New materials are characterized by changes which will require teachers to
learn new ways of managing the learning process and not simply replicates of designs of earlier
produced materials.
Three factors that hamper change in the design of IM’s
1. The rigidity of the test as goals. Innovation is impeded by the need to train learners to
pass tests. E.g. communicative approach in teaching vs. grammatical competence in
testing is a mismatch
2. The caution of publishers. Publishers produce what they know will be acceptable by
teachers and administrators. E.g. it makes no difference with filmmakers
3. The conservatism of classroom teachers and educational administrations. whe n
they are successfully teaching, they believe in what they are doing, so why should they
change. New materials are greeted with suspicion because they differ from what they
have learned to believe in. another reason is the budgetary requirements for retraining
teachers that administrators shy away new materials. E.g. BEC.
How are new IM’s prepared?
IM preparation is basically a process seem as a system with many sub-systems since a)
a change in one part will leave implications in all other parts of the process and b) it is cyclical.

2. Phases in IM’s Preparations
A. The Design Phase
1. Accumulated wisdom and experience.
a. Outline of plan which will characterize the proposed new set of materials.
b. Survey of existing materials to note aspects of design (what features
characterized the matrices) and use (the way learners and teachers actually
use the materials, the results achieved and the reactions of the users to the
materials.
2. A rationale which will justify the preparation/design of a new st of
instructional materials consisting of:
a. A set of statements which identify the shortcomings and failures of existing
materials.
b. A set of statements which identify the new and promising concepts in
second language learning whose incorporation into IM is likely to overcome
the shortcomings and failures.
Shortcomings are seen as inadequate or insufficient manifestation in the materials of
the finding of contemporary research in the discipline concerned. e.g. content, ways the content
is presented, practiced and used to develop communication skills.
Failures may be seen as the unsuccessful statements of goals for learners and/or
teachers. E.g. mismatch in the goals patterned after tests and contemporary wisdom in the
discipline.
Promising concepts are new ideas derived from relevant contemporary research
associated with the discipline aimed at overcoming the identified shortcomings and failure of
existing materials. E.g. universality of content.
3. A Conceptual Framework for the Proposed New Set of Instructional Materials
which will combine the promising ideas with those features of currently available
materials which are considered worth retaining and a state of concepts which can
form the framework within which the proposed material can be designed.
Two Types of Concepts
a. Major Concepts- the overall principles of second language learning and teaching which
will affect every aspect of the design of the IM’s to teach English as a second language
to beginning learners in Primary Schools. E.g. Provisions for Individualization in Learning.
1. Opportunity for learners to enter at individually determined times
2. Opportunity for learners to progress through the course at individually
determined rates of progress.
3. Opportunity for learners to receives guidance and counsel when they need
it
4. Different ways of learning each unit in the course
5. Content of materials and ways of using those materials which accommodate
differing interests and preferences of individual learners.
b. Minor Concepts- those principles which delta the consequences of the major concepts
for aspects of design, development, and dissemination of the proposed new set of IM’s
such as:
1. The organization of language, skills to be acquired by learners
2. The selection, graduation, a and arrangement of language content for the
acquisition of these skills.

3. 3. The methodology associated with the acquisition of these skills
4. The format of the materials
5. The organization for the development and dissemination of the materials
For whom is the conceptual framework?
Developers of the materials. The CF serves as an overall plan. The CF derives its
substance from assumptions of a theory of L2 learning and teaching and the principles that are
set out in an instructional strategy for learning and teaching a second language.
Users of Materials. School authorities and classroom teachers need summary of
statements of principles, which underlie a particular set of IM.
4. Detailed Writing Specifications for the Proposed New Set of IM’s for L2 Learning
and Teaching. It will contain outlined instructions to material writers and publishers which
specify for each set of materials to be developed:
a. Goals of materials
b. Subject matter and language content to be covered and/or the skills to be acquired
through the use of that language content ( selection, gradation, arrangement)
c. The techniques and modes of presentation, practice, use and management that
are to be associated with the learning of the content (what arrangement of
presentation, practice, and use of content)
d. The format of the materials, including division into learning units (How long is each
unit? How many pages in a particular reading book? How many words should each
story or chapter contain?)
e. The technical details for the writing of the materials ( how manuscripts are to be
submitted, submission dates, provisions for re-writing the manuscript)
B. The Development Phase
The planning phase ends here and so does the contribution of the scholar. This phase is
concerned with getting IM’s that work given the constraints imposed by the CF.
1. Membership of the Editorial Board
a. scholar/s responsible for the design phase (others as consultants)
b. One or more practicing classroom teachers at levels of schooling for which
the materials are developed
c. Production editor who is a member of the publishing company or education
authority to give advice on preparation of teacher training materials and on
aspects of publishing and printing to monitor consistency in the material
production
d. Research assistant in charge of tryout of experimental materials.
2. Functions of the Editorial Board
a. Selections of materials writers and supervision of the writing of experimental
materials and approval of the experimental materials.
b. Supervision of the production of experimental materials.
c. Selection of tryout classes and teachers and overall supervision of the try
out and the approval of feedback report forms.
d. Evaluation of feedback report forms during the try out and decision as to
follow-up required.
e. Appointment of internal evaluators, consideration of internal evaluation
report and decision as to follow-up required.
f. Approval of final manuscripts to be submitted for publishing.
g. Editorial check of galleys, page proofs, art work, and color proofs.

4. h. Presentation of information about the materials-ads, brochures, journal
articles, etc.
i. Preparation of teacher training manuals.
3. The Writing of Experimental Materials (new and have not been previously
tried) Purpose:
a. To determine whether or not the promising concepts can be systematically
incorporated into actual classroom learning and teaching materials.
b. To determine whether or not the materials developed actually work.
4. The Internal Evaluation of Experimental Materials. The scrutiny of the materials
and CF which the materials have been based whether or not the principles set out
in the conceptual framework are consistently manifest in the materials. This maybe
conducted by a person or organization not connected with the design of the
materials or by such person in concert with the writers of the materials this is done
to see if the concepts have been transformed into content and techniques.
Imperfect manifestations of concepts would be pointed out.
5. The Controlled Try-out of the Experimental Materials for L2 Learning and
Teaching which will involve the use of the materials in a limited number of
classrooms where there is adequate provision for detailed observation and
feedback about the use of the materials by both teacher and learners to determine
whether there is successful incorporation of ides and whether the materials written
actually work in the classroom.
This stage involves:
a. Selection of representative samples of learners and teachers
b. Provision for controlled, adequate supervision of the use of materials
c. Provision for consistency in te for feedback reports
d. Adequate in-service training of teachers who are to use the materials
This stage also wants specific information about the following questions:
a. Were the objectives of each learning unit attained by each learner?
b. Did teachers/ tutors/ learners manage the learning unit as specified in the
materials, i.e. the management techniques?
c. What learner errors occurred on responses they made?
6. The Modification and the Final Production of the New IM’s. On the basis of the
internal evaluation and controlled tryouts, materials writers make any needed changes before
they are finally produced in conformity with the provisions set.
C. The Dissemination Phase
This phase is concerned with the successful adoption and use of the new IM’s in the
classrooms. Those responsible in the design and development of the IM’s work with educational
administrators, teachers trainers, and classroom teachers.
1. Extensive Use of the New IM’s. Successful implementation depends on 2
factors:
a. Adequate preparation of teachers and administrators for reception of the
new materials in the form of advertising campaigns convincing teachers and
administrations of the need to change through journals, popular press,
meetings, conventions, teacher training institutions.

5. b. Adequate in-service training of teachers who are going to use the materials.
2. Field Evaluation on the extensive use of the new IM’s is subjective assessment
by learners, teachers, and administrators of the success of the materials.
The main questions asked are:
a. Do learners like using the materials? Why?
b. Do Teachers like using the materials? Why?
c. Do teachers and administrators believe that the concepts on which the
materials are based are worthwhile? Why?
When they say the teachers like the materials we may be saying one or more of the following:
a. That they are generally receptive because they find the materials useful for a variety of
reasons;
b. That they like the aims and goals of the materials, that they believe in the things the
materials attempt to attain:
c. That they like the effectiveness of the applicability of the materials to a local situation:
d. That they would choose the materials above others that might be available in a teaching
situation where the use of the materials would be possible and appropriate. It is this final
interpretation that is the most significant in determining the degree of acceptance of new
materials.
Why Materials are Needed?
The efficient use of teaching devices today involves many problems which have never
confronted the teachers before, time and money are apt to be wasted through a lack of adequate
knowledge of both materials and the techniques of their art of teaching. Students would have no
need for a light along pathways unless there are darkness and dangers. Each student must take
the pathway of being enlightened and he will find both the darkness of ignorance and the
darkness of little learning. Teaching devices carries with a vision behind the scene that turn the
brains of the students to advance in the view of the teacher’s explanation. Using teaching
devices in teaching is important. Its effect is not only limited to what you say but it is mostly
extended to what you show.
The quality and effectiveness of simple teaching have been continued by the limited
knowledge and skills of teachers, pupils, and the community in their construction schemes or
techniques, as well as the lack of adequate encouragement and professional help for supervisors
and technicians and the limited financial support for the purchase of available educational
materials. A lot of teachers who teach in the public as well as in the private school have found
the fact that reading is not enough. Students learn their lesson more effectively when they can
see pictures and objects that illustrate what they read and hear. They also remember better
when they do see things that relate to the lessons.
Teaching devices are broadly exclusive terms signifying any material or any means used
by a teacher to promote, stimulate or motivate learning. This is any means, other than this subject
matter to the learner. The devices used are incentives introduced into the method of teaching
for the purpose of stimulating the students and developing understanding through experience.
Teaching devices are sensory objects and images utilized to promote meaningful
communication. So it is generally accepted that the learning takes place when the greatest
number of senses are stimulated.
Teaching devices are valuable in the teaching-learning process because of the following:
1) they stimulate interest and make possible enrichment of the students’ experience and
knowledge, 2) they challenge the attention of the pupils and students will understand the lesson

6. very well, 3) they stimulate the imagination and develop the mental imagery of the students, 4)
they facilitate the understanding of the students, 5) they provide incentives for actions, and 6)
they arouse the emotion and interest of the individual in action.
Principles for the actual writing of the materials
1. Materials provide a stimulus to learning. Good materials do not teach but rather
encourage learners to learn. Good materials will, therefore, contain: interest in texts,
enjoyable activities which engage the learners’ thinking capacities, opportunities for
learners to use their existing knowledge and skill, and content which both learner and
teacher can cope with.
2. Materials help to organize the teaching-learning process by providing a path
through the complex mass of the language to be learnt. Good materials should,
therefore, provide a clear and coherent unit structure which will guide teacher and learner
through various activities in such a way as to maximize the chances of learning. This
structure should help the teacher in planning lessons and encourage in the learner a
sense of progress and achievement.
3. Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning. In writing
materials, you as an author, are making all manner of statements about what you
think language learning consists of. Materials should therefore truly reflect what you
think and feel about the learning process. If you believe that people learn when their
thinking capacities are engaged, don't write exercises which require little or no active
thought. If you think learning is enhanced by intense experience with language, don't
provide texts which have been stripped of any human interest. If you think learning is
helped by frequent reinforcement, make sure that items to be learnt are processed several
times.
4. Materials reflect the nature of the learning task. Language is a complex process
involving many different kinds and levels of knowledge. In the heyday of structuralism, it
was assumed that a knowledge of the structures was the same as knowing a language
and that repetition led to learning. Materials writing was simple task of isolating the
structure, writing a text to exemplify it, and patterned drills to practice it. We must now
take a more humble view and recognize that language learning is a very complex and
little understood process. Materials should try to create a balanced outlook which both
reflects the complexity of the task, yet makes it appear manageable.
5. Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher
training, by introducing teachers to new techniques.
6. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.
Principles for Designing Language Materials
1. Materials should be linked to the curriculum they serve. Whether we are writing our
own, or adopting materials written by others, it is important to keep the goals and
objectives of the curriculum clearly in mind. Activities should not be chosen or devised
just because they are convenient near at hand, or they have worked well with a previous
group of learners or because they have been recommended by a colleague. To assist in
ensuring the relevance of materials to the rest of the curriculum, we should:
a. Keep readily on hand a list of goals and objectives.
b. With reference to the goals and objectives make a list of things learners will
required to do with the languages and the world outside the classroom.
c. Integrate these real-world tasks with the topics, situations or settings the learners
might potentially encounter.
d. Developed materials designed to teach learners to carry out these real-world tasks.
2. Materials should be authentic in terms of text and task. Text authenticity refers to the
authenticity of the input data, which are used as point of departure in materials

7. development. These can come from a wide range of sources such as newspapers,
magazines, brochures, notices, radio announcements, etc. a rule-of-thumb definition for
authentic is any material which has not been specifically produced for purposes of
language teaching. The key question to ask “were these materials specifically designed
for the purpose of language teaching or not ''?
Why authentic texts? It is claimed that classroom texts and dialogues do not
adequately prepare learners for coping with the language they hear and read in the real world
outside the classroom. Texts written specifically for the classroom generally distort language in
some way. Thus, learners are experiencing a model of language which differ significantly from
those they will encounter outside and therefore, may find it harder to comprehend aural and
written texts in the real world.
Authentic tasks are those that replicate or rehearse communicative behavior in the
real world. These are either: a) directly authentic- those that require learners to approximate in
class behaviors required often in the real world. Example, listening to a weather report and
predicting whether a typhoon will pass a certain place or not; b) indirectly authentic- those that
are unlikely to happen in the real world but are included because they stimulate internal
processes of language acquisition as borne out by L2 theory of research. Example, filling in a
table with information from an advertisement.
The distinctions between these two types of tasks is shown in the figure below:
Communicative Classroom Tasks
Type: Real-World vs. Pedagogic
Focus: Rehearsal vs. Psycholinguistic
Reference: Needs Analysis vs. SLA theory/ research
The Real- World/ Pedagogic Distinctions
Pedagogic tasks are justified not on the basis of enabling the learners to rehearse real-
world behaviors but rather along psycholinguistic grounds that: of stimulating internal processes
of language acquisition. Thus, selection of real-world pasts draw from needs analysis, and
pedagogic tasks from some theory or model of second language acquisition.
3. Materials should be able to stimulate interaction. Learners should interact with each
other as much as possible in the classroom. In real life, we do not use ready-made chunks
of language, but have to construct the conversation with our partner as we go along,
negotiating meaning, checking whether he has understood us, and vice versa. This
requires use of our knowledge and skills in all aspects of language. Research and
common sense support the notion that tasks require learners to interact and negotiate
meaning promote acquisition.
Examples of classroom tasks likely to stimulate interactive language work include
1) small-group work, 2) tasks with information gaps and 3) role plays. Small group work
increases the quantity of talk by individual learners, improves the quality of students' talk and
increases student motivation. An information gap is a situation in which different numbers of the
group have different information and must share this information for the tasks to be completed
successfully. For example, students may be asked to complete forms, but in so doing would
have to ask answer questions to obtain the data needed, since each does not have the same
set of information. Role-plays on the other hand, require a high degree of participation and
involve sharing of information.
4. Materials should allow learners to focus on formal aspects of the language. Calls
to abandon form-focused activities are premature. There is evidence that learners can
benefit from form-focused activities particularly those that require them to solve problems,

8. form and reform hypothesis, come to conclusions and construct their own rules from
instances and examples of language use.
Example: Which is the most appropriate conversational response? why?
1. A. is he learning now?
B. yes, he is, because he has as appointment.
2. A. is he learning now?
B. Because he has an appointment.
5. Materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills and skills in learning -
how- to- learn. Research on learning staples and work in learner-centered curriculum
development has led to the trend of incorporating info materials activities that teach students
about learning as it is impossible to teach everything students need to know in class. Hence, we
should aim to provide learners with efficient learning strategies, develop skills in self-evaluation,
assist them to identify own preferred way of learning, encourage them to set own objectives and
develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum. Materials should therefore, incorporate
activities which: encourage learners to monitor own performance, evaluate their developing
communicating skills, rate of progress and levels of attainment, preferences regarding learning
group (whole class, pair, small group, individual), language courses, develop techniques for
initiating and maintaining interactions outside the classroom, memorizing grammar and
vocabulary, applying skills to genuine communicative interactions outside the class, identify
preferred learning strategies and styles, and use formalized routines in interaction so they can
perform beyond their competence.
6. Materials should encourage learners to apply their developing language to the world
beyond the classroom. A good language learner always looks for opportunities for applying his
language outside the classroom. Opportunities to do so must be made a part of materials. Many
learners fail to make corrections between language work done in class and languages they
encounter outside. Tasks designed to get learners to apply the skills need to be elaborated.
Examples:
1. Go to a hotel where English is spoken. Find out the various prices of rooms and facilities
available.
2. Go to a bank and fill out an application form for a credit card.
3. Look in your local paper for a restaurant guide. On Saturday evening, you want to go with
a friend to a restaurant. Your friend likes seafood. You want a restaurant with a view. It
should be licensed and not too expensive.
A. Materials Design Model
Suppose we were to write our own materials, how would we go about it considering
the foregoing principles and aspects of learning? The Hutchinson and Waters model (198)
provides a coherent framework for the integration of these as well as giving enough room for
creativity and variety.
INPUT
CONTENT LANGUAGE
The model consists of four elements: input, content focus, language focus, and task. The
input maybe a text, a diagram, a dialogue, etc. or any piece of communication depending on the
needs analyzed. The input provides: stimulus materials for activities, new language items,
correct models of language use, a topic for communication, opportunities for learners to use their
information processing skills, and opportunities for learner to rise their existing knowledge both
of the language and the subject matter.
TASK

9. Content focus: conveys information and feelings about something.
Language focus: provides opportunity for the analysis and synthesis of language use, i.e.
to take the language to pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back together again.
Task: enables learners to use a content and language knowledge built up through the
unit. It is the primary focus of the unit. The language and content are drawn from the input and
are selected according to what the learners will need in order to do the task.
Numan (1988) defines the communicative task as piece of classroom work, which
involves learners in comprehending, producing or interacting in the target language while their
attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. It should have also a sense of
completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.
Minimally, a task consists of some input and one or more related activities (work the
learner will do on the tasks). It will also have implicitly or explicitly goals, roles of teachers and
learners, and a setting.
Examples:
a. Look carefully at this questionnaire. Make sure you understand all the words in it and you
know how they are pronounced.
What are your sleeping habits?
A short questionnaire to discover your sleeping habits.
1. How much time do you spend in bedmaking?
a. 5 minutes a day b. 5minutes every other day c. 5 minutes a week
b. Now, working in pairs, one of you should interview the other using/this questionnaire. If
there is time, change roles.
Goal exchanging personal information
Input questionnaire on sleeping habits
Activity a. Reading questionnaire
Asking and answering questions about sleeping habits
TASKS
Goals
Teacher
role
Learner
Settings
Activities
Input

10. Teacher Role Monitor and Facilitator
Learner Role Conversational Partner
Setting Classroom/pair work
To illustrate how the model works, here are some guidelines suggested by Hutchinson
and Waters (1987):
Step 1. Find your text. It should be:
a. A naturally occurring piece of communication or a piece that might well have occurred
naturally. May adapt or rewrite at a later stage it felt would improve pedagogic
usefulness.
b. Suited to learners’ needs and interests.
c. Capable of generating useful classroom activities.
Step 2. Think of a task the learners could do at the end of the unit.
Step 3. Go back to the syllabus. Is the task the kind of activity that will benefit the learners?
Step 4.decide what language structures, vocabulary, functions, content, the input contains.
Which of these would be useful for the task, that is, what aspects of language and content can
be usefully focused on the exercises?
Step 5. Think of some exercise and activities to practice the items you have identified.
Step 6. Go back to the input. Can it be revised in any way to make it more useful?
Step . if you revised the input, go through step 1-6 again.
Step 8. Try the materials in the classroom.
Step 9. Most importantly, revise the materials in the light of classroom use. There is no such
thing as perfect materials. They can always be improved.
Experience has shown that it is not easy to design and develop original materials for an
entire course. This requires a great deal of time, personal experience, expertise, good facilities
and logistics. Some take the view that it must be regarded as a “last resort when all other
possibilities of providing materials have been exhausted. However, we have to do it, the following
hints may prove useful:
1. Plan and start working way ahead of your target date for launching your materials.
Materials writing can be time consuming.
2. Aim for what is realistically achievable. Decide on what you can do, on top of your other
duties. Even if you have been reduced load, there are still things you would be asked to
do.
3. Work in a team. Two heads are better than one. Besides, as Hutchinson and Waters
(198) claim, “it is good for your sanity”
4. Unless you have your institution's support, it may be wiser to let materials grow out of
existing ones. Supplement and adopt whatever is available then develop a unit not
covered by materials you have on hand. Until finally you have in that house materials
tailored for your course.
5. If you do not plan to publish commercially, complete originality may not be necessary.
Use existing materials as a source of ideas
Material development is no doubt hard work but it can be fun too, and an excellent means of
unleashing our creativity.
Basic Principle in Material Development
In terms of material development, we need to consider two key questions, namely what
should be provided for learners as materials and how to give them to learners. Materials
designers may say that the key of material development is intuition or tacit knowledge which
they know what work and what won't work based on their experiences. Although this seems to
be good for developing materials, another point which need to be aware of is subjective,
especially from conservative teachers who generally might not want to change. Therefore, it had

11. better to listen to teachers and learners' voices to see what they're interested in and what are
their opinions toward materials.
Basic principles of second language acquisition relevant to the development of materials
for teaching of language compiled by Brian Tomlinson, namely:
1. “Materials should achieve impact." which means they should have attractive presentation and
appealing content to target learners.
2. "Materials should help learners to feel at ease." which means texts & illustration in materials
should make learners feel comfortable, relaxed and being supportive.
3. "Materials should help learners to develop confidence." which means they should make
learners feel successful and push learners to develop their skills.
4. "What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful." which means
materials should convince learners that teaching points are useful whereby teachers need to
find what the learners are interested in.
5. "Materials should require & facilitate learners self-investment." which means they should
encourage learners to invest their interests, efforts and attentions.
6. "Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught." which means using materials to
prepare learners to focus on features of target language which they haven't learnt yet, so they
might be attentive to learn these features.
7. "Materials should expose learners to language in authentic use." which means they should
provide learners with advice and instructions for their activities, spoken language and written
text.
8. "The learners' attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input." which means
materials should include grammar and how the language is actually used.
9. "Materials should provide learners with opportunities to use target language to achieve
communication process."
10. "Materials should take in account that learners differ in learning style." which means they
should provide a variety of activities and should support all learning styles, such as, visual
learners, auditory learners, kinesthetic learners, studial learners, experiential learners, analytic
learners, global learners, dependent learners and independent learners.
11. "Materials should take in account that learners differ in affective attitudes." which means they
should provide different types of text and activities, as well as should be aware of cultural
sensitivities of target learners.
12. "Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction." which means they
should not force learners to speak until they are ready.
13. "Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic &
emotional involvement which stimulates both right and left brain activities."
14. "Materials should not reply too much on controlled practice." which means they should focus
on language use.
15. "Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback, especially feedback on the
effectiveness of use of language rather than accuracy of language."

12. INTRODUCTION:
Instructional materials are the content or information conveyed within a course. These
include the lectures, readings, textbooks, multimedia components, and other resources in a
course. These materials can be used in both face-to-face and online classrooms; however, some
must be modified or redesigned to be effective for the online environment. The best instructional
materials are aligned with all other elements in the course, including the learning objectives,
assessments, and activities. Instructional materials provide the core information that students

13. will experience, learn and apply during a course. They hold the power to either engage or
demotivate students. This is especially true for online courses, which rely on a thoughtful and
complete collection of instructional materials that students will access, explore, absorb, and
reference as they proceed in a course.
Therefore, such materials must be carefully planned, selected, organized, refined, and
used in a course for the maximum effect. The planning and selection of instructional materials
should take into consideration both the breadth and depth of content so that student learning is
optimized.
TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
1. Still Projected Materials - are pictures shown upon a screen by use of a certain type of
machine such as a filmstrip projector, slide projector, overhead projector or TV/VCR. It also
enables educators to convey information to large numbers of people at the same time.
Examples:
 Overhead Projector - a projector for projecting onto a vertical screen magnified images
of graphic material on a horizontal transparency illuminated from below—called also
overhead
 Slide projector - is an opto-mechanical device for showing photographic slides 35mm
slide projectors, direct descendants of the larger-format magic lantern, first came into
widespread use during the 1950s as a form of occasional home entertainment; family
members and friends would gather to view slide shows, which typically consisted of slides
snapped during vacations and at family events. Slide projectors were also widely used in
educational and other institutional settings.
 Filmstrip - a strip of film bearing a sequence of images for projection as still pictures
2. Non-Projected Displays - are those aids which are used without any projection. So they
translate abstract ideas into a more realistic format.
Examples:
 Blackboard - is the most common display surface in the classroom. It can be used as a
surface to draw visuals to support verbal communication.
 Bulletin Board - It is a surface used for decorative, motivational and instructional
purposes. It can hold pins, thumbtacks, and other sharp fasteners without damage to the
board.
 Multipurpose Board - It is a board that is used for several purposes such as for
announcements or special events or occasions, reminders, things to do, etc. It is also
called panel board.
 Flipcharts - refers to large sheets of paper fastened together at the top and mounted to
an easel. The sheets of paper can also be fixed to a support bar, or a display board by
pinning them along their top edges so that they can be flipped backwards or forwards as
required in order to reveal the information on a particular sheet, or to produce a fresh
blank sheet on which impromptu information can be written or drawn.
3. Printed Materials - As used in this policy, the term “printed materials" means any publication,
document, or record including, but not limited to, the following: newspapers, magazines, books,
photographs, drawings, prerecorded magnetic audio tape and that can be run off in large
numbers by printing machines, photocopiers and duplicators.
Examples:
 Book - is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of ink, paper,
parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side

14.  Magazines - are publications, usually periodical publications that are printed or published
electronically. (The online versions are called online magazines.)
 Newspaper - is a serial publication containing news, other informative articles and usually
advertising. A newspaper is usually printed on relatively inexpensive, low- grade paper
such as newsprint.
 Photographs - are an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually
photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most
photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene's visible
wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human eye would see.
Advantages of Print Materials
 Extremely portable. Print materials can be used in any location.
 High comfort level. Most students are very comfortable using print materials to learn.
 Cost effective. Print materials can be created and duplicated with little expense.
 Readily available. Many distance learning courses can take advantage of existing
textbooks, thus saving the time and expense of creating custom materials.
Disadvantages of Print Materials
 No interactions. Print materials do not generally provide built-in interactions. Additional
technologies, such as e-mail, must be supplemented.
 No audio/visual elements. Print materials are static and are not appropriate for teaching
languages and visual concepts.
 Require reading skills. If the learners are non-readers or language skills are required,
print materials will not be effective.
 Time delay. It may take days or weeks for printed matter to travel between student and
teacher.
4. Technological Instructional Media - systems, devices, and apparatus that present and
adapt information during the teaching process in order to improve the process's effectiveness.
In terms of function, such media are generally divided into three types: informational, testing,
and instructional. Informational technological instructional media are of the audiovisual type and
include radio programs, educational films and educational television, slide presentations, and
language laboratories. These media may supplement a lecture or lecture series, or they may be
used to reinforce the visual aspect of material under study.
Examples:
 Electronic whiteboards - are very effective for group instructions. They are used for
group presentations which enhance learning, and also students find it more compelling.
 Mobile devices - enable learners to take their classrooms anywhere. There are more
education apps available already that students, as well as teachers, can use. By using
mobile devices, iPads, tablets, or other devices, educators and learners can maintain a
connected classroom experience.
 Televisions - can show current events in a country like business news, presidential
elections, etc. They can also be used to play educational and instructional DVDs or videos
on the history of a certain community.
 Desktops and Laptops - This drives the need for schools to get sophisticated computers
with powerful processors to run the said applications.
 Projectors - In a large classroom, all students may not be able to view what the teaching
is showing on the laptop screen, that's where projectors come in. A projector hooks up to
a laptop and projects the screen to a larger whiteboard in front of the classroom.
Advantages of Technological Instructional Materials

15.  The Information Highway
Any answer to any question can be found with a few clicks of the keys on the computer or smart
phone. Powerful search engines allow an organized and simply way to find the answers that
students may need for assignments or projects.
 Broaden The Mind
Before the internet, children knew what their family taught them. This caused their political and
religious views to be the only ones that the children knew. Having access to the technology will
expose them to things outside of their parents’ interests and help them to form their own opinions.
 Brings Some Fun Into The Classroom
Learning the same exact way from the same person every day can really get...boring. This
boredom turns into a lack of motivation in the students. When they are able to integrate computer
learning into their normal schedule, they become much more excited to learn.
 Applicable Education
In the working world, in nearly every job you may take, you have to know how to operate a
computer. Teaching this skill in children early will give them an advantages and a learning curve
for when they are adults.
Disadvantages of Technological Instructional Materials
 Access To Inappropriate Content
The biggest concern when it comes to the use of technology in schools is how easy
pornographic, violent, and other inappropriate materials can be accessed and viewed. This could
cause big problems if the material is shared with other students while in the classroom.
 A Disconnected Youth
This harmful effect of technology has already come to light in today's world. People are attached
to their screens almost 24/7, which is causing an entirely new set of social issues to pop up. This
translates into the school system in a bit of a different way, however. More and more students
are experiencing social anxieties when it comes to face to face interactions, but are perfectly
fine socializing online.
 The Cyberbullying Trap
Giving students access to anonymous accounts and endless contact avenues can only lead to
trouble. Cyber bullying has become a real and in our face problem among young people today.
This harassment has no end, which includes the class room. There is also no way to monitor or
discipline students who are involved.
 A Major Distraction
Attentiveness drops drastically in the classroom when students have their cell phones or other
technologies out. The focus shifts from their teacher and education, to whatever they are looking
at, playing, or doing on their phones.

16. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
 Instructional materials may be operationally defined as especially designed classroom
tools which contain instructions to learners and teachers, and which specify each
increment of learning: the content to be learned; the techniques of presentation; practice
and use of that content, and the modes of teaching associated with those techniques
(Johnson, RELC Journal).
 Instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the language input
learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom (Richards).
 IMs are an important element within the curriculum and are often the most tangible and
visible aspect of it. (Nunan, 1991).

17.  They can provide a detailed specification of content, even in the absence of the syllabus
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986).
 They can define the goals of the syllabus, and the roles of the teachers and the learner
within the instructional process (Wright, 1987).
ROLES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Cunningworth (1995) summarizes the role of materials (particularly course books) in
language teaching as a:
 resource for presentation materials
 source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction
 reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc. source of
stimulation and ideas for classroom activities
 syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives which have already been determined)
 support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence in the language
classroom
ROLES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
The roles that instructional materials can play in the three main instructional modes are;
1. MASS INSTRUCTION
Within the context of the various techniques that can be employed as vehicles for
mass instruction, audio-visual and other instructional materials can play a number of roles.
In some cases, (e.g. the use of visual aids, handouts or worksheets in a lecture or taught
lesson), their role will probably be mainly supportive; in others (eg. video or multimedia
presentations or off-air broadcasts) they can constitute the very essence of the method itself.
In both cases, however, it is important that the materials be chosen because of their suitability
for achieving the desired instructional objectives, and not merely because they 'happen to be
available' or because the teacher or trainer wants to 'fill in time'. Some of the specific ways
in which instructional materials can be used in lectures and other mass-instructional
situations are as follows:
 Forming an integral part of the main exposition by providing 'signposts', guidance for note-
taking, illustrative material, work-sheets, etc;
 Providing students with ready-made handout notes on what is being covered, or with
skeleton or 'interactive' handouts that they have to complete themselves;
 Providing supplementary material (background reading, remedial or extension material,
enrichment material, and so on);
 Increasing student motivation by sensory stimulation, introducing visually- attractive,
interesting or simply 'different' material into an otherwise routine lesson;
 Illustrating applications, relations, integration of one topic with another, and so on.
As we will see later, a large number of different presentation media and instructional
materials can be used to fulfil these various functions.
2. INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING
The role of instructional materials in individualized learning is radically different from
that in a mass-instruction system. In the latter, their role is generally supportive, with the main
vehicle of instruction being the teacher or trainer in control of the class; in an individualized-
learning system, on the other hand, the materials themselves constitute the vehicle whereby
instruction takes place. Thus, it is particularly important that such materials should be
designed and produced with the greatest case, for, if they are not, the system could (at best)
fail to achieve all its instructional objectives and (at worst) break down completely. Some of
the specific ways in which instructional materials can be used in individualised learning are
given below:

18.  Providing instructions and/or guidance on how the learner should carry out a particular,
course or programme of study;
 Providing the actual material that has to be learned or worked on during the course or
programme;
 Providing the learner with exercises for diagnostic or assessment purposes;
 Providing supplementary or enrichment material.
As in the case of mass instruction, a large number of different types of media and
materials can be used to fulfil these various functions.
3. GROUP LEARNING
The various methods that come under the general heading of group learning usually
require no specialized hardware and (in many cases) very little in the way of courseware
other than textual materials (booklets, briefing sheets, worksheets, etc.); indeed, the
emphasis is usually very much on the approach or technique rather than a reliance on
specific types of hardware or courseware. Nevertheless, it is vitally important that any
courseware that is required for such an exercise should be very carefully designed, since it
can play a key role in making sure that the exercise runs smoothly. Some of the specific ways
in which such courseware can be used in group-learning activities are given below:
 Forming an integral part of the group-learning process by providing background
information, information about roles, instructions, and so on;
 Providing supplementary or enrichment material;
 Increasing student motivation through visually-attractive or intrinsically interesting
material.
As in the case of mass instruction and individualised learning, a large number of
different types of materials can again be used to fulfil these various functions.
Additional Facts:
Roles of IMs according to Cunningsworth;
 Source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction
 Resource for presentation materials
 Reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation etc. Source of
stimulation and ideas for classroom activities
 Support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain confidence in the language
classroom
 Syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives which have already been determined)
Roles of IMs according to Dudley-Evans and St. John
 As a source of language
 As a learning support
 For motivation and stimulation
 For reference

19. I. INTRODUCTION:
As future teachers, it is essential that we become conversant with the type of instructional
materials, which can be used in any teaching/ learning situations. Instructional materials as it is
said are synonymous with what we call 'teaching aids'. Instructional materials constitute
alternative channels of communication, which a teacher can use to convey more vividly
instructional information to learners. They represent a range of materials which can be used to
'extend the range of vicarious experience' of learners in a teaching-learning situation.
II. CONTENT:
WHAT ARE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS?

20.  Instructional materials are classroom tools which enable teachers to put into practice what
they believe about how skills, attitudes, and knowledge are most effectively acquired by
the learners.
 Instructional materials may be operationally defined as especially designed classroom
tools which contain instructions to learners and teachers, and which specify each
increment of learning: the content to be learned; the techniques of presentation; practice
and use of that content, and the modes of teaching associated with those techniques
(Johnson, RELC Journal).
 Instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the language input
learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom (Richards).
Instructional materials are an important element within the curriculum and are often the
most tangible and visible aspect of it (Nunan, 1991).
 They can provide a detailed specification of content, even in the absence of the syllabus
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986). IMS are essential
 They can define the goals of the syllabus, and the roles of the teachers and the learners
within the instructional process (Wright, 1987)
 Instructional Materials means all materials that are designed for use by students and their
teachers as a learning resource and help the students to acquire facts, skills, or opinions
or to develop cognitive processes. Instructional materials may be printed or non-printed,
and may include textbooks, technology-based materials, other educational materials and
tests.
 Instructional materials are defined as a resources that organize and support instruction
such as textbooks, tasks and supplementary resources. (Remillard and Heck, 2014)
 Instructional materials are any collection of materials including animate and inanimate
objects, human and non-human resources that a teacher may use in teaching and
learning situations to help achieve the desired learning objectives.
 Instructional material is defined as content that conveys essential knowledge and skills of
a subject through a medium or a combination of media for conveying "what manner." 19
information to a student.
 Instructional materials are all forms of materials, arranged systematically and used to help
teachers/instructors in conducting learning activities that create an environment that
allows student to learn. Such materials may include written or unwritten material.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL/S
 They support/assist student learning and helps make learning more permanent.
 Help clarify important concepts.
 Gives all the students in the opportunity to share experiences necessary for new learning.
 Provide variety of options of teaching materials.
 Sustain the student's interests.
 Help the teacher to deliver his/her lesson successfully and easily.
 Enable the teachers to express intended concepts of learning effectively.
 It may also serve as a form of training for inexperienced teachers - they provide ideas on
how to plan and teach lessons as well as the formats that can be use.
 They also supply to the teacher, the exercises and activities to give to their students for
them to engage in as practice material that will lead them to learn the language.
 The essence of producing instructional material is to facilitate the teaching learning
process.
 Instructional materials develop a continuity of thought, this is especially true of motion
pictures, as they provide experiences not, easily obtained through other materials and
contribute to the efficiency, department and variety of learning.
SCOPE OF THE POLICY FOR SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

21. I. Background
Instructional materials are essential tools in the English language arts classroom. They
allow students to interact with words, images, and ideas in ways that develop their abilities in
multiple literacies such as reading, listening, viewing, thinking, speaking, writing, and technology.
Because instructional materials are a primary resource for English language arts teachers, they
must be selected wisely.
The cornerstone of consistent, pedagogically sound selection practices is a clear, written
policy for the selection of materials in the English language arts program. Such a policy not only
helps teachers to achieve program goals, but also helps schools protect the integrity of programs
increasingly under pressure from censors, propagandists, and commercial interests. Because
selection policies should reflect local interests and issues and should be consistent with other
locally developed policies and curriculum documents.
II. Scope of the Policy for Selection of Instructional Materials
What do we mean by "instructional materials"? In the past, the answer might have been
simply textbooks and workbooks. Today, however, the range has broadened considerably,
including young adult and graphic novels, informational text, websites, and ever-changing
technology. The focus of this document, then, is not on selection in the narrow sense of textbook
adoption, but on curriculum and program planning that entails selection of a wide range of
materials, both print and digital, that can be used in whole-class study, small-group work, and
by individual students in extensive study.
As schools clarify the scope of the policy, they should consider not only purchased
materials, but also materials that are provided online as well as those generated by the teacher
and even the students (e.g., student writings discussed in class or small groups). Also, the scope
of the policy should not unwittingly stifle spontaneity and creativity in teachers by requiring a
formal selection process for all materials used for instructional purposes. Sometimes the most
effective learning experiences are those that make use of unanticipated instructional materials:
a letter to the editor, a blog or tweet, for instance, or a newly released video version of a literary
work read by the class.
It is important, too, to distinguish between selection of materials and censorship of
materials. Selection of instructional materials is part of sound program planning. Needless to
say, careful selection is a powerful buffer against challenges because it assures that the program
planning process was thoughtful and not haphazard.