The document provides an overview of instructional design including definitions, history, theories, models, and processes. It defines instructional design as the systematic development of instruction through analysis of learning needs, goals, delivery methods, and evaluation. The ADDIE model of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation is described as a common instructional design process. Learning theories including behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism and their implications for instructional design are also summarized.

1. C. Candace Chou
Learning Technology Certificate/MA Program
Department Curriculum and Instruction
University of St. Thomas
ccchou@stthomas.edu
Instructional Design
Theories,
History
& Models

2. Business:
tangible: e.g., increased output, ROI
intangible: e.g., worker loyalty
Education:
activity-oriented, project-based, student-
centered instruction
promote active learning
Benefits of
Instructional Design

3. What is a Teacher?
Advocate
Evaluator
Learner
Organizer
Collaborator
Model
Artist
Instructional
Designer
Counselor
Coach
Motivator
Judge
Referee
Nurse
Confidant
Listener

4. Instruction is a systematic process that
involves teacher, learners, materials, and
learning environment in order to achieve
successful and identified learning goals.
The “system” refers to an orderly, logical
method of identifying, developing, and
evaluating a set of strategies aimed at
attaining a particular instructional goal
(Morrison, Ross, Kemp, 2004)
Instructional System Design

5. An instructional system is an arrangement of
resources and procedures to promote
learning.
Design implies a systematic or intensive
planning and ideation process prior to the
development of something or the execution of
some plan in order to solve a problem.
Instructional System Design is used
interchangeably with Instructional Design
ISD is a systems approach for the design,
development, implementation, and evaluation
of instruction.

6. Training refer to those instructional
experiences that are focused upon individuals
acquiring very specific skills that they will
normally apply almost immediately.
Teaching refer to those learning experiences
that are facilitated by a human being - not a
videotape, textbook, or computer program,
but a live teacher.

7. Education
Instruction
Training
Teaching
(Source: Smith & Ragan, 1999)

8. Instructional design refers to the systematic
and reflective process of translating principles
of learning and instruction into plans for
instructional materials, activities, information
resources, and evaluation. (Smith and Ragan,
1999)
ID Definition

9. Instruction Design as a Process:
Instructional Design is the systematic
development of instructional specifications
using learning and instructional theory to
ensure the quality of instruction. It is the
entire process of analysis of learning
needs and goals and the development of a
delivery system to meet those needs. It
includes development of instructional
materials and activities; and tryout and
evaluation of all instruction and learner
activities.
Definition I

10. Instructional Design as a Discipline:
Instructional Design is that branch of
knowledge concerned with research and
theory about instructional strategies and
the process for developing and
implementing those strategies.
Definition II

11. Instructional Design as a Science
Instructional Design is the science of
creating detailed specifications for the
development, implementation, evaluation,
and maintenance of situations that
facilitate the learning of both large and
small units of subject matter at all levels of
complexity.
Definition III

12. Instructional Design as Reality
Instructional Design can start at any point
in the design process. Often a glimmer of
an idea is developed to give the core of an
instruction situation. By the time the entire
process is done the designer looks back
and she or he checks to see that all parts
of the “science” have been taken into
account. Then the entire process is written
up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion.
Definitions IV

13. Project manager
Instructional Designer
Instructor/Trainer/Facilitator
Subject-matter Expert (SME)
Programmer/Developer
Graphic Artist/Designer
Evaluator
Who’s Who in Instructional Design
Process

14. History of Instructional Design I
The origins: World War II
Psychologists and educators were called to
develop training materials for the military services.
Early Development: The Programmed Instruction
Movement, mid-1950s
Skinner (1958) introduced ideas on increasing
human learning and the characteristics of effective
instructional materials, called programmed
instructional materials
Present instruction in small steps, require active
responses to frequent questions, immediate
feedback

15. History of Instructional Design II
The Popularization of Behavioral Objectives
Rober Mager (1962) emphasized on objectives for
desired learner behaviors
Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy employed hierarchical
relationship among various types of outcomes
Robert Gagne (1962): Events of Instruction, Hierarchical
analysis, Domains of learning (psychomotor skills, verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and
attitudes)

16. History of Instructional Design II
1970s: Leslie Briggs demonstrated that an
instructionally designed course could produce up to
2:1 increase over conventionally designed class in
terms of achievement, reduction in variance, and
reduction of completion time, save $$$ in salary cost.
1980s: increased use of microcomputer has a major
effect on ID practices, computer-based instruction,
drill and practice
1990s, constructivism, problem-solving and
collaboration, social-cultural issues, and rapid
prototyping

17. Behaviorism: Behavioral theory emphasized
the influence of the environment on learning.
According to behaviorism, learning has
occurred when learners evidence the
appropriate response to a particular stimulus,
e.g., Pavlov’s classical condition.
ID example: drill and practice. Memorization
for basic information
Learning Theories & the
Implications for ID

18. Cognitive Learning Theories
Gagne: Principles of Instruction
Translate behaviorist and information -processing
theories into instructional strategies
Types of learning
• Intellectual skills (problem solving, higher-order
thinking, defined concepts, concrete concepts,
discriminations)
• Cognitive strategies
• Verbal information
• Motor skills
• Attitudes

19. Gagné: Events of Instruction
1. Gain attention
2. Informing the learner of the objectives
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
4. Presenting new materials
5. Providing learning guidance
6. Eliciting performance
7. Providing feedback about correctness
8. Assessing performance
9. Enhancing retention and recall

20. Gagné (continued)
Learning hierarchies: Learning is a building process
that the lower-level skills provide the foundation for
higher-level skills.
Math example: to work with long division problems
requires the prerequisite math skills in number
recognition, number facts, simple addition and
subtraction, multiplication, and simple division.
ID examples: drills, tutorials, simulation

21. Constructivism
Learning is always a unique product “constructed” as
each individual learner combines new information
with existing knowledge and experiences. Individuals
have learned when they have constructed new
interpretations of the social, cultural, physical, and
intellectual environments in which they live. (Dick &
Carey, 2001)
ID examples: problem-solving, project-based learning

23. Morrison, Ross, & Kemp Model

25. Analysis
Design
Development
Implementation
Evaluation
ID Model: ADDIE

26. The Analysis Phase
Who is the audience?
What do they need to learn?
What is the budget?
What are the delivery options?
What constraints exist?
When is the project due?
What will the students do to determine competency
(Powers, 1997)?

27. The Design Phase
Select the most appropriate Web-based environment
by examining the kinds of cognitive skills required to
achieve your goal (Driscoll, 1998, p. 50)
Write the instructional objectives; select an overall
approach and the program’s look and feel; outline
units, lessons, and modules (Hall, 1997)
Design course content specifically for use with an
interactive, electronic medium (Porter, 1997)

28. The Design Phase II
What are your objectives?
What skills, knowledge and attitudes are you trying to
develop?
What resources and strategies will you use in your
instruction?
How will you structure the content of your learning
materials?
How will you assess the learner’s understanding and
whether or not they have met the objectives of the
instruction?
(http://et.sdsu.edu/wschutt/addie/addieindex.htm )

29. The Development Phase
Obtain and/or create the required media.
Use the Internet's strength to present information in
many different multimedia formats so that the
learners' preferences can be met (Porter, 1997, p.
196).
Determine the appropriate interactions. They should
be creative, innovative, and encourage learners to
explore further (Porter, 1997, p. 200).
Plan activities that allow for student group work to
help construct a supportive social environment
(Simonson et al, 2000, p. 115).

30. The Implementation Phase
Duplicate and distribute materials.
Install and maintain the course.
Be prepared in the event that technical
problems occur and discuss alternative plans
with the students ahead of time (Simonson et
al, 2000, p. 115).

31. The Evaluation Phase
Test for instructional standards.
Plan several points during the course when
students can provide anonymous feedback so
that the instructor is aware of student confusion
and misunderstanding (Schrum, 1998).
Conduct formative evaluations to improve the
course and summative evaluations to judge the
effect of the course (Bourne et al, 1997).
http://distance-
ed.fullerton.edu/pages/faculty_staff/online_guide/guide24.htm

32. Define problems
Target population
Task Content
Job analysis
SME role (Subject Matter Expert)
Needs Assessment

33. Tasks
A task is an action designed to contribute a specified
end result to the accomplishment of an objective. It
has an identifiable beginning and end that is
measurable component of the duties and
responsibilities of a specific job. A task statement has
an action and a result (product)
For example:
Adjust gears on a 10 speed bike
Print a Microsoft World document on Windows XP

34. SME vs Trainers
SME are responsible on how tasks, to include the order of
performance steps, are to be performed, while trainers are
responsible on how that material will be presented
(demonstrate - practice - hands-on test).
SME are responsible on technical-jargon, while trainers
decide if that jargon needs to be explained (unless the jargon
is offensive).
SME are responsible what is acceptable performance, while
trainers decide how that performance will be evaluated
(written, hand-on, oral).
SME are responsible for providing the performance
objectives, while trainers are responsible for turning the
objectives into a viable learning or performance objectives
(task - observable action, conditions, standards - at least one
measurable criterion).

35. Discuss in small groups, in how many
different ways do people learn. Try to come
up as many verbs as possible, to end the
sentence:
People learn by...
Exercise 1