Industrial cooling systems use evaporative cooling towers or dry air systems to remove waste heat from industrial processes. Evaporative towers are more common due to lower costs and footprint. They work by evaporating a small portion of recirculating water to lower its temperature. Optimizing cooling towers, fans, pumps, and water management can save over 10% in energy costs. Regular monitoring and maintenance are important for reliable efficient operation.
This paper introduces the subject of industrial cooling and discusses the most important energy savings that are possible in this area.
Cooling is very expensive, so it is important that it is used only where necessary, and that only the most efficient technology is used. For thermodynamic reasons, the energy efficiency of a cooling system increases with decreasing temperature differential. It is therefore crucial to keep this differential as low as possible.
Three main types of cooling systems prevail in industrial environments: dry cooling, evaporative cooling, and compression cooling. This paper explains their main working principles and characteristics. Other types, such as absorption cooling, gas expansion, and thermo-electric cooling, are not treated in this application guide because of their limited presence in industry.
Each system has its own application domain. The choice of the right cooling system is one of the important initial decisions that must be taken in order to achieve maximum energy efficiency. Furthermore, this paper discusses several specific energy saving actions for each of the three cooling systems.
Significant energy savings can be made by installing variable frequency drives on fans (dry cooling, evaporative cooling), pumps (evaporative cooling, compression cooling), and compressors (compression cooling).
introduction of VARS,refrigrants properties,cop,practical VARS ,
Simple VARS,advantages of VARS,comparison of vars with vcrs,Refrences of VARS,Refrigration cycles,economical system,absorbent properties
This paper introduces the subject of industrial cooling and discusses the most important energy savings that are possible in this area.
Cooling is very expensive, so it is important that it is used only where necessary, and that only the most efficient technology is used. For thermodynamic reasons, the energy efficiency of a cooling system increases with decreasing temperature differential. It is therefore crucial to keep this differential as low as possible.
Three main types of cooling systems prevail in industrial environments: dry cooling, evaporative cooling, and compression cooling. This paper explains their main working principles and characteristics. Other types, such as absorption cooling, gas expansion, and thermo-electric cooling, are not treated in this application guide because of their limited presence in industry.
Each system has its own application domain. The choice of the right cooling system is one of the important initial decisions that must be taken in order to achieve maximum energy efficiency. Furthermore, this paper discusses several specific energy saving actions for each of the three cooling systems.
Significant energy savings can be made by installing variable frequency drives on fans (dry cooling, evaporative cooling), pumps (evaporative cooling, compression cooling), and compressors (compression cooling).
introduction of VARS,refrigrants properties,cop,practical VARS ,
Simple VARS,advantages of VARS,comparison of vars with vcrs,Refrences of VARS,Refrigration cycles,economical system,absorbent properties
Condenser and Cooling Tower Power Plant EngineeringAjaypalsinh Barad
The file contains all details of the Condenser and Cooling Tower systems or Thermal power plant. This is the part of the subject Power Plant Engineering in GTU in 7th semester.
vapor absorption system,three fluid vapor absorption system,water and ammonia vapor absorption system water and lithium bromide vapor absorption system
Compressors complete description and a well arranged slides for the topic. That's too the point and relevant slide share you are looking for! Hope you will find it easy to understand
Thank you!
Heat pumps are increasingly being used in medium and large buildings to provide both heating and cooling. If specified and installed correctly they present a very good opportunity to save energy and reduce carbon emissions compared to traditional building heating and cooling technologies. This application note provides an overview of the types of heat pumps available along with the advantages and constraints of installing them in larger buildings.
The main appeal of heat pumps is that they take low grade heat from a renewable, cost-free source and transfer it at a higher temperature to where it is needed, in an energy efficient manner. There is a great deal of flexibility in the heat sources available, for example external air, pipework installed in the earth, water wells and boreholes as well as local watercourses and ponds.
Choosing the most appropriate heat source for a building will depend on evaluating the advantages and constraints of the options available and looking at the whole life costs of the installation. The relatively high installation costs compared to gas boilers, especially with ground source heat pumps, needs to be considered against the longer working life, lower running costs and the carbon emission reduction to be achieved.
Electrical storage systems: efficiency and lifetimeBruno De Wachter
This application note discusses the technical aspects of battery energy storage system design and operation and their influence upon system efficiency and lifetime. The various roles of electrical energy storage systems are discussed first in order to gain appreciation of the way these systems are used. This is followed by a discussion of the most common battery technologies and their aging mechanisms. Factors which affect the efficiency and lifetime of power electronics are also discussed, since power converter(s) and associated switchgear are essential elements and determine in part the performance of energy storage systems.
A common factor which affects both the lifetime of batteries and (power) electronics is heat: the higher the temperature, the faster a component ages. Energy losses result mostly in heat production. Striving for high energy efficiency in both the battery and power electronics thus gives a double payoff: in addition to the energy savings, the lowered heat production results in lowered cooling requirements and longer life of components due to a lower operating temperature.
Condenser and Cooling Tower Power Plant EngineeringAjaypalsinh Barad
The file contains all details of the Condenser and Cooling Tower systems or Thermal power plant. This is the part of the subject Power Plant Engineering in GTU in 7th semester.
vapor absorption system,three fluid vapor absorption system,water and ammonia vapor absorption system water and lithium bromide vapor absorption system
Compressors complete description and a well arranged slides for the topic. That's too the point and relevant slide share you are looking for! Hope you will find it easy to understand
Thank you!
Heat pumps are increasingly being used in medium and large buildings to provide both heating and cooling. If specified and installed correctly they present a very good opportunity to save energy and reduce carbon emissions compared to traditional building heating and cooling technologies. This application note provides an overview of the types of heat pumps available along with the advantages and constraints of installing them in larger buildings.
The main appeal of heat pumps is that they take low grade heat from a renewable, cost-free source and transfer it at a higher temperature to where it is needed, in an energy efficient manner. There is a great deal of flexibility in the heat sources available, for example external air, pipework installed in the earth, water wells and boreholes as well as local watercourses and ponds.
Choosing the most appropriate heat source for a building will depend on evaluating the advantages and constraints of the options available and looking at the whole life costs of the installation. The relatively high installation costs compared to gas boilers, especially with ground source heat pumps, needs to be considered against the longer working life, lower running costs and the carbon emission reduction to be achieved.
Electrical storage systems: efficiency and lifetimeBruno De Wachter
This application note discusses the technical aspects of battery energy storage system design and operation and their influence upon system efficiency and lifetime. The various roles of electrical energy storage systems are discussed first in order to gain appreciation of the way these systems are used. This is followed by a discussion of the most common battery technologies and their aging mechanisms. Factors which affect the efficiency and lifetime of power electronics are also discussed, since power converter(s) and associated switchgear are essential elements and determine in part the performance of energy storage systems.
A common factor which affects both the lifetime of batteries and (power) electronics is heat: the higher the temperature, the faster a component ages. Energy losses result mostly in heat production. Striving for high energy efficiency in both the battery and power electronics thus gives a double payoff: in addition to the energy savings, the lowered heat production results in lowered cooling requirements and longer life of components due to a lower operating temperature.
Heat pumps are increasingly being used in medium and large buildings to provide both heating and cooling. If specified and installed correctly they present a very good opportunity to save energy and reduce carbon emissions compared to traditional building heating and cooling technologies. This application note provides an overview of the types of heat pumps available along with the advantages and constraints of installing them in larger buildings.
The key appeal of heat pumps is that they have the ability to take low grade heat from a source and transfer it at a higher temperature to where it is needed in a relatively energy efficient manner. There is a great deal of flexibility in the heat sources available, for example external air, underground pipework, boreholes and local watercourses and ponds are all commonly used sources. Choosing the most appropriate heat source for a building will depend on weighing up all the advantages and constraints of the options available and looking at the whole life costs of the installation. The relatively high installation costs compared to gas boilers, especially with ground source heat pumps, needs to be considered against the lower running costs and carbon reduction that can be achieved.
A heat pump will in most cases save on carbon emissions compared to a fossil fuel boiler, but the exact carbon savings that can be achieved will depend on a number of factors. The heat source should be closely matched with the building’s heat requirements, and the most energy efficient components should be used in both the heat pump and the distribution system. The control systems should be set up to ensure that heating and cooling is only provided where and when required. The building fabric should be designed to ensure heat loss is minimised. It is only by taking a holistic view of the entire heating and cooling systems for a building that a proper assessment of the suitability for heat pumps can be made.
It is possible to consider that adsorption systems can be alternative to reduce the CO2 emissions and electricity demand when they driven by waste heat or solar energy. Although, for a broader utilization the researches should continue aiming for improvements in heat transfer,reductions of new adsorbent compounds with enhanced adsorption capacity and improved heat and mass transfer properties.
Energy efficiency self-assessment in buildingsLeonardo ENERGY
Energy efficiency has been a key topic for many years, yet there remain opportunities to reduce energy consumption in existing buildings. These make up a significant proportion of Europe’s building stock so reducing the energy they consume will make useful progress towards carbon reduction targets.
However, for most organizations the real driver for reducing energy consumption rests firmly in the accountant’s office. With energy prices rising all the time, reducing the energy used in a building can give significant financial benefits.
Many issues relating to energy efficiency can be identified by someone with relatively limited technical knowledge. Things like non-optimized control of lighting or heating can be easily seen by examining the system in the correct way.
A systematic approach to analyzing the data already held, gathering data needed, and looking at options for the future, should yield worthwhile benefits.
Heat Pumps - Integrating Technologies to Decarbonise Heating and CoolingLeonardo ENERGY
Heat pump technology can deliver major economic, environmental and energy system benefits to Europe. Heat pumps use renewable energy and may be the single most efficient technology for heating and cooling, particularly when both services are required in the same location and at the same time.
Heat pumps are installed in larger numbers only recently, while the underlying concept has been around for over 150 years. The technology is now becoming a keystone to the energy mix for decarbonising heating and cooling in industry and society at large. The energy transition is therefore not a technology challenge but rather a policy and awareness-raising issue.
This special report sheds light on the fundamental principle of the technology, the renewable and waste-energy based sources used, the financial and energy efficiencies that are achieved, the business models being deployed, and the non-technical benefits for the environment and society.
Directed at policy-makers and industry players, this report advances the unique integrative function that heat pumps provide for decarbonising the heating and cooling sectors, thus explaining why heat pump technology will be at central component of Europe’s future energy system.
In many non-residential buildings across Europe, the energy consumed for heating and cooling is more than half the total energy consumption of the building. This is not inevitable. The introduction of simple design concepts and currently available technologies can lead to significant reductions in the energy consumption, operating costs, and carbon emissions of both new and existing buildings.
This guide therefore discusses some of the technologies and systems that can be installed into new buildings to provide more sustainable heating and cooling. It also considers how existing systems can be improved through retrofitting improved technology or simply adjusting control strategies to reduce energy losses.
Wind turbines make a major contribution to the production of renewable energy with its benefits of reduced reliance on fossil fuel imports and reduction in emissions. Development efforts following the 1970s oil crisis have now matured, leading to the wide availability of high capacity, efficient and reliable turbines suitable for onshore and offshore application.
This Application Note discusses wind turbine principles, how the available power can be assessed, the generation and control technology in current use and future trends.
A new generation of instruments and tools to monitor buildings performanceLeonardo ENERGY
What is the added value of monitoring the flexibility, comfort, and well-being of a building? How can occupants be better informed about the performance of their building? And how to optimize a building's maintenance?
The slides were presented during a webinar and roundtable with a focus on a new generation of instruments and tools to monitor buildings' performance, and their link with the Smart Readiness Indicator (SRI) for buildings as introduced in the EU's Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD).
Link to the recordings: https://youtu.be/ZCFhmldvRA0
Addressing the Energy Efficiency First Principle in a National Energy and Cli...Leonardo ENERGY
When designing energy and climate policies, EU Member States have to apply the Energy Efficiency First Principle: priority should be given to measures reducing energy consumption before other decarbonization interventions are adopted. This webinar summarizes elements of the energy and climate policy of Cyprus illustrating how national authorities have addressed this principle so far, and outline challenges towards its much more rigorous implementation that is required in the coming years.
Auctions for energy efficiency and the experience of renewablesLeonardo ENERGY
Auctions are an emerging market-based policy instrument to promote energy efficiency that has started to gain traction in the EU and worldwide. This presentation provides an overview and comparison of several energy efficiency auctions and derives conclusions on the effects of design elements based on auction theory and on experiences of renewable energy auctions. We include examples from energy efficiency auctions in Brazil, Canada, Germany, Portugal, Switzerland, Taiwan, UK, and US.
A recording of this presentation can be viewed at:
https://youtu.be/aC0h4cXI9Ug
Energy efficiency first – retrofitting the building stock finalLeonardo ENERGY
Retrofitting the building stock is a challenging undertaking in many respects - including costs. Can it nevertheless qualify as a measure under the Energy Efficiency First principle? Which methods can be applied for the assessment and what are the results in terms of the cost-effectiveness of retrofitting the entire residential building stock? How do the results differ for minimization of energy use, CO2 emissions and costs? And which policy conclusions can be drawn?
This presentation was used during the 18th webinar in the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy on February 3, 2022.
A link to the recording: https://youtu.be/4pw_9hpA_64
How auction design affects the financing of renewable energy projects Leonardo ENERGY
Recording available at https://youtu.be/lPT1o735kOk
Renewable energy auctions might affect the financing of renewable energy (RE) projects. This webinar presents the results of the AURES II project exploring this topic. It discusses how auction designs ranging from bid bonds to penalties and remuneration schemes impact financing and discusses creating a low-risk auction support framework.
This presentation discusses the contribution of Energy Efficiency Funds to the financing of energy efficiency in Europe. The analysis is based on the MURE database on energy efficiency policies. As an example, the German Energy Efficiency Fund is described in more detail.
This is the 17th webinar in the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy.
Recordings are available on: https://youtu.be/KIewOQCgQWQ
(see updated version of this presentation:
https://www.slideshare.net/sustenergy/energy-efficiency-funds-in-europe-updated)
The Energy Efficiency First Principle is a key pillar of the European Green Deal. A prerequisite for its widespread application is to secure financing for energy efficiency investments.
This presentation discusses the contribution of Energy Efficiency Funds to the financing of energy efficiency in Europe. The analysis is based on the MURE database on energy efficiency policies. As an example, the German Energy Efficiency Fund is described in more detail.
This is the 17th webinar in the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy.
Recordings are available on: https://youtu.be/KIewOQCgQWQ
Five actions fit for 55: streamlining energy savings calculationsLeonardo ENERGY
During the first year of the H2020 project streamSAVE, multiple activities were organized to support countries in developing savings estimations under Art.3 and Art.7 of the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED).
A fascinating output of the project so far is the “Guidance on Standardized saving methodologies (energy, CO2 and costs)” for a first round of five so-called Priority Actions. This Guidance will assist EU member states in more accurately calculating savings for a set of new energy efficiency actions.
This webinar presents this Guidance and other project findings to the broader community, including industry and markets.
AGENDA
14:00 Introduction to streamSAVE
(Nele Renders, Project Coordinator)
14:10 Views from the EU Commission and the link with Fit-for-55 (Anne-Katherina Weidenbach, DG ENER)
14:20 The streamSAVE guidance and its platform illustrated (Elisabeth Böck, AEA)
14:55 A view from industry: What is the added value of streamSAVE (standardized) methods in frame of the EED (Conor Molloy, AEMS ECOfleet)
14:55 Country experiences: the added value of standardized methods (Elena Allegrini, ENEA, Italy)
The recordings of the webinar can be found on https://youtu.be/eUht10cUK1o
This webinar analyses energy efficiency trends in the EU for the period 2014-2019 and the impact of COVID-19 in 2020 (based on estimates from Enerdata).
The speakers present the overall trend in total energy supply and in final energy consumption, as well as details by sector, alongside macro-economic data. They will explain the main drivers of the variation in energy consumption since 2014 and determine the impact of energy savings.
Speakers:
Laura Sudries, Senior Energy Efficiency Analyst, Enerdata
Bruno Lapillonne, Scientific Director, Enerdata
The recordings of the presentation (webinar) can be viewed at:
https://youtu.be/8RuK5MroTxk
Energy and mobility poverty: Will the Social Climate Fund be enough to delive...Leonardo ENERGY
Prior to the current soaring energy prices across Europe, the European Commission proposed, as part of the FitFor55 climate and energy package, the EU Social Climate Fund to mitigate the expected social impact of extending the EU ETS to transport and heating.
The report presented in this webinar provides an update of the European Energy Poverty Index, published for the first time in 2019, which shows the combined effect of energy and mobility poverty across Member States. Beyond the regular update of the index, the report provides analysis of the existing EU policy framework related to energy and transport poverty. France is used as a case study given the “yellow vest” movement, which was triggered by the proposed carbon tax on fuels.
Watch the recordings of the webinar:
https://youtu.be/i1Jdd3H05t0
Does the EU Emission Trading Scheme ETS Promote Energy Efficiency?Leonardo ENERGY
This policy brief analyzes the main interacting mechanisms between the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) and the EU Emission Trading Scheme (ETS). It presents a detailed top-down approach, based on the ODYSSEE energy indicators, to identify energy savings from the EU ETS.
The main task consists in isolating those factors that contribute to the change in energy consumption of industrial branches covered by the EU ETS, and the energy transformation sector (mainly the electricity sector).
Speaker:
Wolfgang Eichhammer (Head of the Competence Center Energy Policy and Energy Markets @Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI)
The recordings of this webinar can be watched via:
https://youtu.be/TS6PxIvtaKY
Energy efficiency, structural change and energy savings in the manufacturing ...Leonardo ENERGY
The first part of the presentations presents the energy efficiency improvements in the manufacturing sector since 2000, and the role of structural change between the different branches and energy savings. It will compare the improvements in Denmark and other countries with EU average. This part is based on ODYSSEE data.
The second part of the presentation presents the development in Denmark in more detail, and it will compare the energy efficiency improvement, corrected for structural change, with the reported savings from the Energy Efficiency Obligation Scheme.
Recordings of the live webinar are on https://youtu.be/VVAdw_CS51A
Energy Sufficiency Indicators and Policies (Lea Gynther, Motiva)Leonardo ENERGY
This policy brief looks at questions ‘how to measure energy sufficiency’, ‘which policies and measures can be used to address energy sufficiency’ and ‘how they are used in Europe today’.
Energy sufficiency refers to a situation where everyone has access to the energy services they need, whilst the impacts of the energy system do not exceed environmental limits. The level of ambition needed to address energy sufficiency is higher than in the case of energy efficiency.
This is the 13th edition of the Odyssee-Mure on Energy Efficiency Academy, and number 519 in the Leonardo ENERGY series. The recording of the live presentation can be found on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jEAdYbI0wDI&list=PLUFRNkTrB5O_V155aGXfZ4b3R0fvT7sKz
The Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD) Initiative Prod...Leonardo ENERGY
The Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD) Initiative Product Efficiency Call to Action, by Melanie Slade - IEA and Nicholas Jeffrey - UK BEIS
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
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Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
3. Publication No Cu0117
Issue Date: May 2018
Page ii
CONTENTS
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 2
Overview of Industrial Cooling requirements ................................................................................................. 3
Selecting a cooling system......................................................................................................................................3
Psychrometry of air ................................................................................................................................................3
Operation of the cooling water recirculation loop.................................................................................................4
Minimizing the cooling load ...................................................................................................................................5
Alternative uses for the waste heat .........................................................................................................5
Critically assess the required cold water temperature ............................................................................5
Regulating the flow through the heat exchangers...................................................................................5
Open-circuit Recirculation systems..........................................................................................................5
Cooling Tower operation and optimization..................................................................................................... 7
Evaporative cooling towers ....................................................................................................................................7
Energy and water consumption..............................................................................................................................8
Counterflow evaporative cooling towers ...............................................................................................................8
Crossflow evaporative cooling towers..................................................................................................................10
Dry Air Cooling Systems........................................................................................................................................11
Plant Optimization........................................................................................................................................ 14
Plant Optimization - Fans .....................................................................................................................................14
Speed control of the cooling tower fan..................................................................................................14
Speed control of the fan in multiple tower systems ..............................................................................15
Fan selection and maintenance..............................................................................................................16
Plant Optimization - Pumps..................................................................................................................................16
Multiple pump control ...........................................................................................................................16
Preferential use of best performing pumps ...........................................................................................17
Pump selection.......................................................................................................................................17
Non-return valves operation..................................................................................................................17
Plant Optimization - Drives...................................................................................................................................18
Motors....................................................................................................................................................18
Transmissions.........................................................................................................................................18
Operational and Management Cost Savings ................................................................................................. 19
4. Publication No Cu0117
Issue Date: May 2018
Page iii
Water balance and billing.....................................................................................................................................19
Water Treatment..................................................................................................................................................19
Total dissolved solids control ...............................................................................................................................20
Sump Heater controls...........................................................................................................................................20
Monitoring and Targeting.....................................................................................................................................20
Operator training..................................................................................................................................................20
Action Checklist ............................................................................................................................................ 21
Minimizing the heat load .......................................................................................................................21
Cooling tower .........................................................................................................................................21
Cooling tower fans .................................................................................................................................21
Circulating pumps...................................................................................................................................21
Water management ...............................................................................................................................21
Energy management ..............................................................................................................................21
References.................................................................................................................................................... 22
5. Publication No Cu0117
Issue Date: May 2018
Page 1
SUMMARY
The starting point for a review of an industrial cooling system should be to see what options there might be for
minimizing the heat load, and then to see if there are any alternative uses for the waste heat produced. Once
the demand has been reduced, attention can then be given to optimizing the cooling system to run efficiently.
Evaporative cooling systems are the most popular type found in industry. This Application Note explains how
they work and the energy and water saving opportunities that they may present. For both evaporative and dry
air cooling systems, variations in ambient air conditions and process loads, means that they will spend much of
their time working at part load operation. On/off and variable speed control of the system fans and pumps can
give large energy savings, but the selection of methods depends on the detailed design of the cooling plant.
Care also must be taken to also ensure that the system will work satisfactorily at partial load.
Water treatment and selection, and maintenance of cooling tower fill are important for effective and reliable
operation, and have direct impact on energy use. Regular monitoring of the system will ensure that any
changes in performance can be identified and remedial measures taken.
This Application Note makes suggestions of well proven techniques to save energy, that vary from simple
maintenance tasks to operational and equipment changes that will require the input of a specialist.
6. Publication No Cu0117
Issue Date: May 2018
Page 2
INTRODUCTION
An unavoidable byproduct of many industrial processes is waste heat, which must be safely removed and
dissipated to the environment by a dedicated cooling system. Unfortunately, these cooling systems are often
seen as a free facility, with the true costs of operation often being overlooked. Even a thermal load of 60
MWth can cost over 1 M€ per year to remove from a site.
This Application Note gives an overview of the design and operation of common types of industrial cooling
systems, showing how energy savings in excess of 10% can frequently be found without significant investment.
Improved operation and maintenance can also improve cooling plant performance and reliability, and lead to
reduced water consumption
1
.
The cooling systems described in this Application Note are found in many high heat producing applications,
most commonly:
Removal of heat from exothermal reactions in chemical reactors
Cooling of large industrial plant, such as air compressors
Cooling of high temperature products, such as steel production
Cooling of condensers for power generation (though large power plants use single pass water cooling
systems and natural draft towers, which need special considerations that are outside the scope of this
Application Note)
In addition, many of the considerations for the optimization of cooling towers used in industry are also very
relevant to the condenser cooling found on larger chiller systems, such as those of building air-conditioning
systems.
1
ISO16345:2014 “Water-cooling towers -- Testing and rating of thermal performance” gives in depth
information on how the performance of cooling towers can be assessed, and gives useful insights on the
factors that impact performance.
7. Publication No Cu0117
Issue Date: May 2018
Page 3
OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL COOLING REQUIREMENTS
SELECTING A COOLING SYSTEM
The selection of cooling system will depend on a balance of many factors. These include factors related to the
local environment, such as:
Variation of dry and wet bulb temperatures around the year.
Availability and quality of water for use in the cooling process.
Temperature set-point of process cooling water.
Danger from localized fog caused by steam plumes from evaporative cooling systems.
Available footprint and height restrictions.
Local noise restrictions.
Local wind conditions and the location of nearby buildings or industrial processes.
As well as process-related factors, such as:
Quantity and variation of heat to be dissipated.
Costs of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion, scaling and biological growth.
Risk of people coming into contact with spray carrying legionella bacteria.
Capital, operations and maintenance costs.
For the range of industrial processes considered in this Application Note, the choice is between different types
of evaporative or dry air water recirculation cooling systems. For very large plant, such as power generation
stations, a single pass system with discharge of warmed water back to source is common.
PSYCHROMETRY OF AIR
For dry air and evaporative cooling systems, the properties of the ambient air are critical for determining the
cooling ability of the system [1]. Three temperatures are of interest when considering cooling tower operation:
Temperature of the warm water entering the cooling tower
Temperature of the cold water exiting the cooling tower
Approach temperature of the air
The temperature drop between the warm water entering the tower and the cold water exiting is known as the
temperature range. This is typically in the range 6 – 10°C. The difference between the cold water return
temperature and the temperature of the air is known as the approach temperature. This should ideally be as
small as possible.
The dry bulb temperature is the temperature of dry air, and is relevant where sensible heat transfer is the
underlying mechanism, such as for dry air coolers. An approach temperature of around 12°C is typically
achievable for these systems.
For evaporative cooling systems, the capacity of the air to hold additional evaporated water is an important
factor. The wet bulb temperature is a measure of the degree of saturation of the air, which takes into account
dry bulb temperature, relative humidity and air pressure. It is the lowest temperature to which water can
theoretically be cooled, taking into account the additional cooling from the latent heat used in the transition of
water from liquid to gas when it is evaporated. The lower the degree of saturation, the more moisture it is
capable of holding, and so the greater the cooling potential. An approach temperature of around 4°C is
achievable for these systems.
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The wet bulb temperature is lower than the dry bulb temperature, except when the air is fully saturated, at
which point the two values will be the same.
Table 1 shows the end (exit) temperatures achievable by dry and wet systems in a variety of temperature
conditions, showing clearly the lower temperatures achievable by evaporative systems.
Country, city Temperature (°C)* Temperature
difference
(°C)
End temperature (°C) T (Wet – Dry)
systems (K)Dry bulb Wet bulb Dry
system
Wet
system
Greece, Athens 36 22 14 48 26 22
France, Paris 32 21 11 44 25 19
Portugal, Lisbon 32 27 5 44 31 13
Ireland, Dublin 23 18 5 35 22 13
Belgium, Brussels 28 21 7 40 25 15
Germany, Hamburg 27 20 7 39 24 15
* Statistically only 1% of the maximum temperatures are above this data.
Table 1 – Achievable cooling of dry air and evaporative cooling systems in different locations. Adapted from
IPPC BREF (Table 1) [2] .Illustrative only, based on a 4K (dry air) and 12K (evaporative) temperature approach.
OPERATION OF THE COOLING WATER RECIRCULATION LOOP
Figure 1 shows the high level design of a cooling water loop, where heat is transferred from the process to the
cooling circuit through heat exchangers. The now warmed up water leaving the heat exchanger then enters
the cooling tower (or another type of water-to-air heat exchanger), where it is cooled by the airflow. This cold
water exits the cooling tower, and is then pumped back to the process heat exchangers. As below, it is
common for a cooling system to serve many parallel heat exchangers serving different processes. Valves, that
might be manual or automatic, should adjust the flow in each arm to suit the required flow.
Figure 1 – Schematic of a cooling tower system with multiple heat loads.
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MINIMIZING THE COOLING LOAD
ALTERNATIVE USES FOR THE WASTE HEAT
Dissipating heat to atmosphere is inherently wasteful, and so the preference is to reclaim value from the heat
stream by finding an alternative use. On most sites which produce large amounts of waste heat, there is little
demand for additional heat, and so uses off site should be considered. For example, greenhouse horticulture
and space heating is sometimes supplied by power station condenser cooling water. However, on many
systems the production of waste heat is much lower during the colder seasons, making it hard to find a cost
effective match.
Organic Rankine Cycle based power generation [3] could be considered, but the economics will be limited by
the temperature of the waste heat, and the variation in quantity of heat produced over the year. For more
information ORC, see the LE Application Note “Sustainable Heating and Cooling”.
On more complex energy intensive sites that have several different processes, a PINCH [4] approach can be
used to move waste heat energy between processes with different thermal heating/cooling requirements. For
example, a finished chemical product might require cooling from 120°C to 40°C, where some of this
temperature drop can be achieved by using heat exchangers to pre-heat an earlier stage of the process. This
use of waste energy will reduce the net cooling demand on the cooling towers.
CRITICALLY ASSESS THE REQUIRED COLD WATER TEMPERATURE
The starting point for optimizing the energy performance of a cooling system is to understand the actual cold
water return temperature needed by the process heat exchangers to sufficiently cool the process loads. The
origin of this set point should be critically reviewed in conjunction with the plant operators. Suspiciously
rounded target temperatures, such as 30.0°C, or systems where records show that the return water
temperature drifts with ambient, or other non-process conditions, are indications that further investigation
could be useful. The cost of cooling means that just a small increase in required return temperature can lead to
big savings.
REGULATING THE FLOW THROUGH THE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Control valves should be fitted to heat exchangers to vary the flow to match demand, and to allow isolation
when not in use. These controls commonly include, such as:
Time-switches.
Load sensors.
Thermostats.
The use of a Variable Speed Drive to vary the pump speed will save energy by reducing flow as the total
demand varies.
OPEN-CIRCUIT RECIRCULATION SYSTEMS
At some industrial sites, the water will also be used for cleaning or direct cooling of products, meaning that it
will pick up debris that needs to be removed. An example of this is in steel rolling mills, where the water is also
used for slab de-scarfing, tank washdown and direct slab cooling, (figure 2).
To avoid subsequent damage to the pumps and other components, the spent water is captured in scale pits,
from where it is pumped by the scale pit pumps to a clarifier tank for further cleaning. It is then pumped
through a filter by the clarifier pumps, and then through the cooling tower. The mill supply pumps finally
supply the cooled water back to the mill processes.
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This system means that the water is pumped three times on each passage around the cooling loop.
Consequently, minimizing the required water has an even larger associated reduction in total pumping energy.
Figure 2 – Simplified schematic of the water supply in a steel rolling mill, showing multiple pump stages used in
circulating the water around the supply and cooling loop [5].
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COOLING TOWER OPERATION AND OPTIMIZATION
EVAPORATIVE COOLING TOWERS
Evaporative cooling towers are popular because they are usually lower cost, have a smaller footprint and
require less energy than dry air systems. But they do require more maintenance, and the growth of legionella
bacteria needs to be managed. In addition, a typical tower will be designed to lose about 1.5% of the water to
evaporation. This loss needs to be replaced on an ongoing basis by make-up water. The water will also need
regular chemical dosing to maintain water quality.
There are two principal types of evaporative cooling towers; counterflow and crossflow. Both work on the
same thermodynamic principle. Towers are commonly made from galvanized steel and/or fibre re-inforced
plastic, with some older tower designs still using wooden walls. Large cooling towers may be constructed on
site out of concrete.
It is common to find several cooling towers installed in parallel to make up the required capacity. This gives
many options for part load control, and makes maintenance easier to schedule. The differing pressure:flow
characteristics of the crossflow and counterflow systems mean that in multiple tower systems, the two types
should not be mixed.
Cooling tower fill is essential for operation (figure 3), as it maximizes the air:water interface and transit time,
hence maximizing the amount of evaporation that can take place as the water falls through tower. Modern fill
usually consists of hexagonal tubes created from multiple pre-formed PVC sheets, with fine ridges (flutes) built
into the walls to direct the water on circuitous routes to the bottom. The fill will have an optimum air:water
flow ratio of around 3:1.
For dirtier water, coarser flutes are used, but at the expense of heat transfer capability. Where entrained dirt is
a big issue, some counterflow systems just use a direct spray of water into the cooling tower with no fill.
For extremely dirty water, descending fill bars are used, where the water falls and splashes from one bar to the
next. The reduced surface area of these droplets compared with film flow means that performance is not as
good.
Figure 3 – Cross section through PVC film fill for counterflow cooling towers
2
.
2
Diagram taken from http://www.towercomponentsinc.com/operation-film-fill.php
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ENERGY AND WATER CONSUMPTION
Electricity consumption of the fans and pumps, and water consumption in evaporative cooling systems, varies
between different designs and operating conditions. By way of illustration, tables 2 and 3 show annual costs
based on running a 60 MWth cooler at 3,000 h full load equivalent per year.
Item kW/ MWth kW
Assumed cost
(€/kWh)
Total annual cost of
electricity for 3,000 h
full load equivalent
Electricity - Pumps 15 900 0.12 €324,000
Electricity - Fans 5 300 0.12 €108,000
Table 2 – Illustrative annual cost of water in an evaporative cooling tower (see table 3.3 in [2] for derivation of
kW/MWth figure), where MWth is the nominal cooling load.
Item m3
/h / MWth m3
/h
Assumed cost
(€/m3
)
Total annual cost of
water for 3,000 h full
load equivalent
Water 2 120 2.0 €720,000
Table 3 – Illustrative annual cost of water in an evaporative cooling tower (see table 3.6 in [2] for derivation of
m
3
/h / MWth figure).
COUNTERFLOW EVAPORATIVE COOLING TOWERS
In counterflow cooling towers, the water is first pumped to the top of the tower, from where it is sprayed
downwards onto the fill (figure 4). The fan induces a vertical counterflow of the air from underneath the fill.
As the water moves through the fill under gravity, a small proportion of the water is evaporated. The
remaining cooled water then falls into the cold water sump, from where it is then returned to the cooling loop.
For best operation, each flute should have equal air:water flows. However, the circular pattern of standard
nozzles means that this is difficult to achieve. This means that some flutes will have a poor air:water ratio, and
so will not work at their optimum. Bounceback of spray hitting the cooling tower walls can also cause a more
localized air:water imbalance around the cooling tower edge.
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Figure 4 – Schematic of a counterflow cooling tower.
Figure 5 – Spray pattern of standard nozzles in a counterflow evaporative cooling tower, showing an uneven
water flow distribution.
Nozzles that produce a pattern that is closer to a square are also available, and should be considered for new
or retrofit installation.
Low water pressure operation could reduce the spray pattern diameter. This leads to wide water:air ratio
variations across the fill, limiting the pressure range over which the tower can work effectively. Some nozzles
have integral valves that close the nozzle if the supply pressure is too low (figures 6 and 7).
Figure 6 – Impact on the spray pattern of a counterflow evaporative cooling tower with insufficient pressure.
[6]
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Figure 7 – Uneven water flow pattern across fill at times of insufficient pressure.
High pressure nozzles that have a wider spray pattern mean that the separation between nozzles and the top
of the fill can be minimized. If specified at design, this can decrease pumping energy and tower capital costs. If
retrofitted, the additional fill increases the effectiveness of heat transfer, since heat transfer within the flutes
is around ten times more effective than that in the freefall zone above.
CROSSFLOW EVAPORATIVE COOLING TOWERS
In crossflow evaporative cooling towers, the water is pumped to a distribution pan at the top of the tower,
where it falls through nozzles in the base onto the fill below, (figure 8).
Figure 8 – Schematic of a crossflow cooling tower.
An advantage of this system is that the nozzle head is fixed by the depth of water in the distribution pan, and
so a greater turndown flow ratio is possible than on counterflow systems with varying nozzle water pressure
On crossflow systems, the depth of water in the redistribution deck varies with the flow. The depth of water in
the distribution deck is typically 6” at rated flow. Very low water flows should be avoided, as it can lead to icing
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in cold weather, and to enhanced scaling. Dams, or nozzle cups, can be used to restrict the active nozzles and
hence fill at times of low water flow, (figure 9).
Figure 9 – Use of nozzle cups and a dam to vary active zones with water flow on a crossflow redistribution deck.
DRY AIR COOLING SYSTEMS
Dry air coolers work by the transfer of heat by convection from radiator cooling fins to moving air (figure 10). A
fan is used to increase air flow and hence heat removal.
Because there is no water loss, the operational water make-up and chemical dosing costs are negligible. This is
a major operational advantage over evaporative cooling towers. As water is only required to fill the system
once, they are ideal for sites where water is not always available. Because the water is not in contact with the
air, the risk of legionella bacteria is low, making these systems popular where people are at risk of inhaling
airborne water droplets.
A wider range of mediums can be used as a cooling fluid because the system is closed. There will also not be
the visible plume sometimes seen coming from evaporative cooling towers, which is a benefit in locations
where fog development is a risk.
However, because these systems rely on convection cooling only, they do not benefit from the latent heat
cooling of evaporation. As a result, they require more surface area. They are generally more expensive than
evaporative cooling systems.
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Figure 10 – V-type dry air cooler.
The cooling matrix is built of an assembly of copper pipes inserted through aluminium fins to help heat
dissipation (figure 11). Air is then sucked through the fins to enhance heat transfer. It is usual for large arrays
to be built from multiple small fans. The fan power required is higher than for a comparable evaporative
system, and so this type of plant may also be noisier.
Dry air coolers are often sold as packaged units with multiple fans (figure 12). These can be controlled
sequentially or by speed reduction, with substantial energy savings possible through speed reduction at times
of low cooling duty. Brushless DC motors are popular, resulting in a high-energy efficiency both at full and at
reduced flow.
Figure 11 – A heat exchanger detail showing copper pipes with aluminium fins.
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Figure 12 – Multiple fan dry air cooling unit, which might be vertically or horizontally mounted.
Periodic cleaning is required to ensure that the cooling fins do not get blocked, which is a particular risk in
dusty industrial environments.
Some dry air coolers include a water spray onto the fins for adiabatic cooling. In this way, almost free
additional cooling within 6°C of the wet bulb temperature can be gained when ambient conditions are
favourable.
Only a small amount of water will be used, but is designed to be completely evaporated. These systems are
therefore only applicable where there is water available. A drain point is required to drain of water in the
distribution pipes at the end of operation.
De-scaling of water might be required depending on water properties, and incoming water can be disinfected
using UV sterilization units.
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PLANT OPTIMIZATION
PLANT OPTIMIZATION - FANS
SPEED CONTROL OF THE COOLING TOWER FAN
Cooling systems are designed to provide a maximum cold water temperature at specified ambient and load
conditions, but will spend much of their time working at a much lower duty.
At these lower duties, sufficient cooling can still be achieved with reduced airflow. This can be done by
installing a Variable Speed Drive (VSD) using temperature feedback to vary the speed of the fan. In this way,
the required set-point return water temperature can be maintained (figure 13).
Since the power consumption of a fan varies with the cube of the speed, even just a 20% reduction in fan
speed will theoretically almost halve the power consumed.[7].
Pnew = 0.8
3
x Poriginal => Pnew = 0.51 x Poriginal.
Where Poriginal is the original power consumption when it was running at full speed, and Pnew is the reduced
power consumption.
Figure 13 – Installation of a VSD to regulate the fan speed, using a temperature sensor to maintain return
water temperature. [8]
The VSD also gives a controlled increase of speed during start up, which reduces the mechanical stress, as well
as the peak currents when starting high inertia axial fans. The VSD will have internal losses, and will slightly
increase the losses in the motor, but these losses are small in comparison to the potential energy savings. The
typical increase in motor losses when driven by a VSD is approximately equivalent to the loss reduction
achieved through a downgrade of half of an IE motor efficiency class [9].
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SPEED CONTROL OF THE FAN IN MULTIPLE TOWER SYSTEMS
For larger cooling requirements making use of multiple cells or towers, switching these on and off individually
is a traditional way to match the cooling power to the demand. This can give useful energy savings, but the
energy savings can be much larger by keeping all cells running and slowing down the fans. In this way, the heat
transfer surface area is maintained at a maximum, with the energy savings coming from the reduction in fan
speed. [6]
The airflow produced by the fan is proportional to the fan speed, with cooling capacity falling as the speed
falls. But because the fan power is proportional to the speed cubed, the specific fan power (kW/l/s) required
for the same total flow is now much less.
Figure 14 – Running three cooling tower fans at 2/3rds speed theoretically uses less than half the energy of two
fans running at full speed.
In the example shown in figure 14, 3 towers at 2/3 flow will give the same airflow as 2 towers at full flow,
(table 4). But the theoretical total energy consumption will now be just 45% (=100 x 89/200).
Fan Operation Flow (% of single fan rated
power)
Power (% of single fan rated
power)
2 Fans at full speed 200% 2 x 100% = 200%
3 Fans at 2/3rds speed 200% 3 x (2/3)3
x 100% = 89%
Table 4 – Energy savings from running multiple fans at reduced speed.
This is a very effective way to save energy, providing that the cooling tower can work satisfactorily at this
reduced airflow. Historically, variable pitch blades or two speed motors have been used to adjust the fan duty,
but their lower cost and other advantages have made VSDs popular in this application.
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FAN SELECTION AND MAINTENANCE
Particularly for new cooling towers it is worth checking that a high efficiency design has been selected and that
it is working within its ideal zone of operation. The blades should also be kept clean to maintain efficiency.
PLANT OPTIMIZATION - PUMPS
MULTIPLE PUMP CONTROL
For open evaporative systems, there is significant static head, which limits the potential energy saving from
speed reduction. In addition, for counterflow towers, nozzle performance depends critically on pump pressure
and hence rotational speed. This means that there is limited scope for varying the pump speed as a means to
reduce the energy requirement
Instead, flow can be varied by switching on and off individual pumps in multiple pump systems. A common
energy saving opportunity is to review the control strategy of such pump banks in order to minimize the
number of pumps operating.
The system operating point with 1 and 2 pumps in use is shown in figure 15. When the second pump is
switched on, the total flow will increase by an amount that depends on the shape of the system curve. For a
system that has static head only and no friction, the flow would double. But for a real life system which does
have friction, the increased flow will give rise to an increase in friction head. This means that 1) despite having
two pumps, the flow has not doubled, 2) the pressure is higher than was originally needed, which represents
wasted energy, and 3) the pumps will be working at new operating points with different efficiencies (figure
16).
In this example, the pumps are selected for best performance when two are running. But it is also possible to
specify pumps that have optimum efficiency when just one pump is running. This enables the system to be
designed to have the lowest specific energy consumption when supplying the most common flow demand.
It is not unusual to find excess pumps running after they were used to overcome a short term peak in demand,
and were not switched off again afterwards. A PLC can be used for automatic sequencing of the pumps in
response to varying demand.
Figure 15 – Control of multiple pumps on a counterflow cooling system.
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Figure 16 – Change in the working point and hence efficiency of an individual pump as the number of pumps
used is varied.
PREFERENTIAL USE OF BEST PERFORMING PUMPS
Measurement of the electricity consumption and water flow of the different pumps will give the specific
energy consumption (kWh/m
3
) of each pump. By measuring the pump performance at different flows, its Best
Efficiency Point (BEP) can be found. The best performing pumps can then be given preference when
sequencing pump operation. This also gives information on the number of pumps at which the system will be
the most efficient.
PUMP SELECTION
The circulation pumps should be chosen to be high efficiency designs, with a working range close to their Best
Efficiency Point (BEP). For larger pumps, it can be worth periodically checking their efficiency using an in situ
pump efficiency test method. The gradual decrease in efficiency can then be monitored and the pump
refurbished or replaced as necessary.
NON-RETURN VALVES OPERATION
Non-return valves are important to ensure that pressurized water does not recirculate through the unused
pump back to the suction side of the operational pumps (figure 17). Also, if they do not open fully, then this
throttling will reduce the delivered water and increase the specific energy consumption of that pump.
Figure 17 – Arrangement of multiple pumps and non-return valves on large cooling system [8].
It is usual, but not essential, for all the pumps in parallel systems to have identical characteristics.
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PLANT OPTIMIZATION - DRIVES
MOTORS
The induced draft fan motors are mounted within the airstream, and must consequently be rated for the warm
and humid atmosphere.
High efficiency motors should be specified as standard. In many countries, motors of the high performance IE3
efficiency class are now the only ones available. Retrofit of working motors with new high efficiency motors is
unlikely to be economic, but when an older motor needs replacing anyway, the economics of upgrading to a
higher efficiency motor are usually attractive [10]
TRANSMISSIONS
The rotational speeds of standard induction motors are too high for cooling tower fans, and so a belt drive or
gearbox transmission are needed for the fan to operate correctly.
Wedged Drive belts are commonly used where the fan shaft and motor shaft are in the same orientation. As
they become slacker with use, internal energy losses will increase, and so they should be periodically re-
tensioned. As the belts wear, the sheaves (pulleys) will also wear and will require replacement. On drives
where there are several drive belts in parallel, it is important that they are equally tensioned. Where it is
practical, toothed belts are a good alternative that have much lower internal losses.
Gearboxes are used where the fan shaft is at 90° to the motor shaft. These have internal losses that vary by
type and also with the load. They also require periodic lubrication.
New direct drive motors are now available that are designed specifically for evaporative cooling tower fans,
which avoid the need for a separate transmission [11]. These give much higher efficiencies and will also
produce less noise. The maintenance requirement is less, and alignment is also simpler. However, care should
be taken that the fan supports can withstand the total weight of the motor in the centre of the tower.
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OPERATIONAL AND MANAGEMENT COST SAVINGS
WATER BALANCE AND BILLING
A typical evaporative cooling tower is designed to lose about 1.5% of water flow to evaporation, which should
be reflected in the amount of make-up water required. If make-up water is more than this, then it indicates
losses through either drift, leakage or blowdown. This is costly in terms of water, energy and chemicals.
Drift is spray or mist that is blown out of the cooling tower. Drift eliminators are boards that are
positioned to reduce airborne drift, but should be checked to ensure that they are functioning well. On
the best installations drift eliminators will keep drift to 0.001 – 0.005%. This airborne drift is distinct from
the plume of pure steam that is sometimes seen over cooling towers. Careful selection and maintenance
of drift eliminators is important to minimize the pressure drop, and the corresponding additional fan
energy required to overcome this.
Blowdown is necessary to maintain the right chemical balance of the water. Minimising the amount of
water lost through blowdown is described in the next section.
Leakage can occur anywhere in the system.
Any water that does not return to drain should not be included in the sewage charge. Fitting an approved
meter to the make-up water supply can be used to support a reduced waste water bill.
WATER TREATMENT
For evaporative systems that require ongoing filling with make-up water, regular dosing will be needed to
maintain effective and safe operation:
Corrosion inhibitors for reducing rusting.
Scale inhibitor chemicals are needed to reduce the build-up of scale from minerals such as calcium,
magnesium and silica carbonate in the water. Scaling can be a particular problem in flutes subject to
regular on/off cycling.
Biocides to reduce the growth of biological film.
In addition, dirt, leaves, paper and other organic waste can be blown into evaporative systems. These larger
suspended solids can be removed by filtering.
Legionnella Pneumophilla bacteria is found in many systems and must be controlled in line with local legal
requirements and guidelines
3
. It can become a hazard where the water temperature in all or some part of the
system may be between 20–50 °C; there are deposits that can support bacterial growth, such as rust, sludge,
scale and organic matter; and where it is possible for water droplets to be produced and dispersed.
Closed systems also require treatment, but because a regular input of fresh make-up water isn’t required, the
costs will be much lower.
3
The regulations published by the United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive give a good overview of the
approach that should be taken to managing legionella bacteria. [12]
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TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS CONTROL
As the pure water evaporates from the cooling tower, the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of the remaining water
will increase, with fresh make-up water bringing in additional minerals. Periodic blowdown of a proportion of
the volume of water in order to maintain TDS at an appropriate level is therefore important. Without accurate
monitoring of actual TDS levels, blowdown is likely to remove more water and chemicals than is actually
needed.
On-line TDS monitoring reduces water use by only initiating blowdown when a defined TDS level has been
reached, greatly reducing the cost of replacing water and chemicals unnecessarily sent to drain. Systems that
can work satisfactorily with a higher TDS peak concentration will require less blowdown. Specialist advice and
training is recommended to specify and maintain a chemical dosing and blowdown regime appropriate to the
system. The equipment and processes are very similar to those used for blowdown of boiler water.
SUMP HEATER CONTROLS
Evaporative cooling towers have a sump to collect the cooled water, which could freeze in low ambient
temperatures. A heater will be fitted to prevent this happening.
The heater controls should be checked to ensure that it switches the heater on and off at the required
temperatures. If the switch off temperature is too high, then excess energy will be used in heating the water to
this temperature.
MONITORING AND TARGETING
Ambient temperature and cooling demand will be important factors in influencing electricity and water
consumption. Separate meters for the electricity and water used by the cooling system are recommended to
enable consumption to be measured on a regular basis. This will enable any variations from the norm to be
identified and their cause traced. There may be genuine reasons for variances, in which case a comparison of
water and electricity use with other influencing factors can give much deeper insights into system
performance. Comparisons should be made over whatever time period is relevant, which might be different
for a batch or continuous process.
OPERATOR TRAINING
It is important that the staff operating the cooling system are aware of the high electrical, water and chemical
costs of the plant that they control. Very often they have little idea of the costs of the regular decisions that
they make, and have not been given the knowledge to understand how they can make changes to operating
procedures in order to make useful energy savings. It is vital to involve the Production Department (and any
other customers of the cooling system) in any changes in operating procedures.
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ACTION CHECKLIST
MINIMIZING THE HEAT LOAD
Critically assess the basis of the specified return water temperature. Can it be raised – even a little?
Take steps to reduce the heat load that needs dissipating. This might involve a review of the set-
points for the cooling loads, checking the selection and operation of controls, and cleaning of heat
transfer surfaces.
Can the waste heat be re-used, for example in the heating of other processes on or off site, or for
power generation?
COOLING TOWER
Check the type and condition of the fill, and clean or replace as necessary.
Check that the water flow across the fill has acceptable variation.
Consider the use of alternative spray nozzles to give an improved spray pattern.
Check that the nozzles are not broken or blocked.
If fitted, valves should be adjusted to provide a more even flow across the nozzles.
Check the operation of drift eliminators. In particular, look for scaling or biological growth that might
be restricting air flow.
Check the operation of sump heater controls
For crossflow designs, check that the sump water level is above the bottom of the fill, otherwise it will
offer an alternative way to bypass where it is required.
Clean the cooling fins of dry air cooling systems to enhance air flow.
COOLING TOWER FANS
Consider installing VSDs to vary the speed of the fans.
Replace motor and transmission with high efficiency integrated direct drive motor/inverter.
Clean the fan blades to maintain efficiency.
Upgrade older fans on evaporative cooling towers to higher efficiency designs.
CIRCULATING PUMPS
Check proper operation of non-return valves.
Sequence the pump control to match the flow to instantaneous demand.
Assess performance of each pump to decide on priority pumps when sequencing.
Measure pump efficiency over time to decide the best time to replace or repair.
WATER MANAGEMENT
Use automatic Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) monitoring and blowdown control to minimise make-up
and to dose the use of chemicals.
Fit a water meter to the make-up water inlet to monitor usage.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Upgrade failed low efficiency motors to high efficiency types
Install electricity and water meters to enable ongoing review of system performance.
Train the operators to be aware of energy efficiency aspects during plant operation.
26. Publication No Cu0117
Issue Date: May 2018
Page 22
REFERENCES
1 Cooling Tower Performance TR-017, SPX Cooling Technologies, 2016. spxcooling.com/pdf/TR-017.pdf
2 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) – Reference Document on the application of Best
Available Techniques to Industrial Cooling Systems. European Commission December 2001.
3 Cu0155 AN Sustainable Heating and Cooling v1, Leonardo Energy, 2013.
4 Introduction to Pinch Technology, Linnhoff March, 1998. https://www.ou.edu/class/che-design/a-
design/Introduction%20to%20Pinch%20Technology-LinhoffMarch.pdf,
5 Reducing Water Pumping Costs in the Steel Industry, GPG170, ETSU, 1996.
6 Variable flow over cooling towers TR-014, SPX Cooling Technologies, 2017.
http://spxcooling.com/library/detail/variable-flow-over-cooling-towers
7 Saving energy With Cooling Towers, Frank Morrison, Ashrae Journal, Feb 2014.
http://www.corecontrolsdfw.com/documentation/2014Feb_034-041_Morrison.pdf
8 Based on an example in “Industrial Cooling Water Systems”. Good Practice Guide 225, 1999.
9 IEC 60034-30 standard on efficiency classes for low voltage AC motors.
10 Cu0104 Application Note – Electric Motor Asset Management, 2015.
11 ABB Industrial cooling direct drive motor and VSD packages, 2015.
http://search-
ext.abb.com/library/Download.aspx?DocumentID=3AUA0000179912&LanguageCode=en&DocumentPar
tId=&Action=Launch
12 Legionnaires’ disease: Technical guidance Part1: The control of legionella bacteria in evaporative cooling
systems, UK Health and Safety Executive, 2013. http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg274part1.pdf