Inca architecture is known for precise stone masonry without mortar. Their buildings featured symmetrical enclosures housing rectangular structures. Ollantaytambo is an Inca site featuring trapezoidal doors, windows and niches made of local granite. The Incas developed earthquake-resistant techniques including trapezoidal openings that tilt inward, rounded corners, and interlocking stone blocks. They precisely cut stone blocks using tools and wedges to fit structures together tightly without gaps.
The Inca civilization flourished in Peru from around 1200-1532 AD, growing from a small kingdom centered around Cuzco into a vast empire spanning South America. Under leaders like Pachacuti and Topa Inca, the Incas expanded their territory through conquest and developed policies to integrate conquered peoples. The Incas built impressive infrastructure like roads, suspension bridges, and temples, and were renowned for their precise stonework. However, the empire fell into civil war in the 1530s, allowing the Spanish, led by Francisco Pizarro, to defeat the Incas and destroy their civilization within several decades of their arrival.
Tibet sits at a high altitude with a unique ecosystem. It is home to rare wildlife and bordered by India, Nepal, Bhutan and China. The Potala Palace in Lhasa is the most important Buddhist site, built in the 17th century and housing artifacts. Prayer flags are used to sanctify the landscape and bring good fortune. Stupas called Chortens are architectural structures used in Buddhist rituals and symbolizing enlightenment. Bagan in Myanmar is known as the "Land of Pagodas" due to its landscape dominated by Buddhist stupas and temples from the 9th-13th centuries. The structures blend Burmese and Indian architectural styles.
The archaeological site of Takht-i-Bahi contains ruins of an ancient Buddhist monastery from the 2nd-3rd century AD. The monastery has a rectangular courtyard surrounded by small shrines with fine architecture. Excavations have uncovered structures like stupas, meditation cells, and other buildings. Coins and sculptures found at the site provide evidence that it was occupied by Buddhists and Hindus. The ruins now include courts for stupas and a monastic complex.
The document summarizes three major pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations: the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca. The Olmec were the first civilization in Mesoamerica, located along the Gulf of Mexico coast. They constructed large cities and carved colossal stone heads. The Maya flourished from 300-900 AD in present-day Mexico and Guatemala, with accomplishments including hieroglyphic writing, an accurate calendar, and the city of Tikal. The Aztecs ruled an empire from their capital of Tenochtitlan from 1400-1520 AD until conquered by the Spanish. The Inca Empire spanned South America with the capital at Cuzco until
History of Architecture 1
Report by: Ampil + Faustino
De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde
School of Design & Arts
Architecture Program
1st Term S.Y. 2016-17
December 2016
The document discusses traditional Chinese architecture and its key features. It describes how Chinese architecture has remained largely unchanged in its structural principles over many centuries, while decorative details have evolved. Some key elements of traditional Chinese architecture discussed include imperial palaces, which showcase imperial rule; pagodas, which were introduced from India along with Buddhism; and city walls with gates and watchtowers that surrounded cities. The document also provides details on the construction and typical components of pagodas, such as their underground palace, base, body, and steeple.
This Powerpoint slideshow presentation looks at China's greatest historical building still in use today. It describes the history, the construction and the architectural elements of the palace, using beautiful photos and illustrations. It is one of the highlight for traveller visiting Beijing.
The Inca civilization flourished in Peru from around 1200-1532 AD, growing from a small kingdom centered around Cuzco into a vast empire spanning South America. Under leaders like Pachacuti and Topa Inca, the Incas expanded their territory through conquest and developed policies to integrate conquered peoples. The Incas built impressive infrastructure like roads, suspension bridges, and temples, and were renowned for their precise stonework. However, the empire fell into civil war in the 1530s, allowing the Spanish, led by Francisco Pizarro, to defeat the Incas and destroy their civilization within several decades of their arrival.
Tibet sits at a high altitude with a unique ecosystem. It is home to rare wildlife and bordered by India, Nepal, Bhutan and China. The Potala Palace in Lhasa is the most important Buddhist site, built in the 17th century and housing artifacts. Prayer flags are used to sanctify the landscape and bring good fortune. Stupas called Chortens are architectural structures used in Buddhist rituals and symbolizing enlightenment. Bagan in Myanmar is known as the "Land of Pagodas" due to its landscape dominated by Buddhist stupas and temples from the 9th-13th centuries. The structures blend Burmese and Indian architectural styles.
The archaeological site of Takht-i-Bahi contains ruins of an ancient Buddhist monastery from the 2nd-3rd century AD. The monastery has a rectangular courtyard surrounded by small shrines with fine architecture. Excavations have uncovered structures like stupas, meditation cells, and other buildings. Coins and sculptures found at the site provide evidence that it was occupied by Buddhists and Hindus. The ruins now include courts for stupas and a monastic complex.
The document summarizes three major pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations: the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca. The Olmec were the first civilization in Mesoamerica, located along the Gulf of Mexico coast. They constructed large cities and carved colossal stone heads. The Maya flourished from 300-900 AD in present-day Mexico and Guatemala, with accomplishments including hieroglyphic writing, an accurate calendar, and the city of Tikal. The Aztecs ruled an empire from their capital of Tenochtitlan from 1400-1520 AD until conquered by the Spanish. The Inca Empire spanned South America with the capital at Cuzco until
History of Architecture 1
Report by: Ampil + Faustino
De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde
School of Design & Arts
Architecture Program
1st Term S.Y. 2016-17
December 2016
The document discusses traditional Chinese architecture and its key features. It describes how Chinese architecture has remained largely unchanged in its structural principles over many centuries, while decorative details have evolved. Some key elements of traditional Chinese architecture discussed include imperial palaces, which showcase imperial rule; pagodas, which were introduced from India along with Buddhism; and city walls with gates and watchtowers that surrounded cities. The document also provides details on the construction and typical components of pagodas, such as their underground palace, base, body, and steeple.
This Powerpoint slideshow presentation looks at China's greatest historical building still in use today. It describes the history, the construction and the architectural elements of the palace, using beautiful photos and illustrations. It is one of the highlight for traveller visiting Beijing.
ngkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world. Angkor Wat, translated from Khmer (the official language of Cambodia) literally means “City Temple.” As far as names go this is as generic as it gets. Angkor Wat was not the original name given to the temple when it was built in the 12th century.
Thailand is located in Southeast Asia. It borders Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia and Myanmar. Bangkok is the capital city. Theravada Buddhism is the dominant religion in Thailand. The climate is tropical, with three seasons in the north and two seasons in the south. Historically, Thailand has been influenced by the Mon, Khmer, Malay and Tai peoples. Major historical periods include the Sukhothai Kingdom, Ayutthaya Kingdom and the current Rattanakosin period under the Chakri dynasty.
The document provides information about three ancient civilizations - the Maya, Aztec, and Inca. It describes the locations and key features of each, including their religious practices, advances in mathematics and architecture, and their eventual declines. The Maya built cities like Chichen Itza in Mexico and Central America and developed hieroglyphic writing and a calendar. The Aztecs established the city of Tenochtitlan in Mexico and had an empire centered around religious practices like human sacrifice. The Inca ruled from Cuzco in the Andes and built elaborate stone structures and roads while practicing rituals like cranial deformation.
The document summarizes information about stupas located around the world. It describes the origins and symbolism of stupas, and provides details about the structure, architecture, and historical context of specific stupas in India, Japan, Indonesia, and other parts of Asia, including the Great Stupa and Dhamekh Stupa in India, the stupa built by a Japanese monk in Ladakh, and the famous Borobudur Temple in Indonesia. Comparisons are made between some of the large and important stupas discussed.
Ancient Architecture in India and (Case Study: Spatial Planning of Taj Mahal)Peshang hama karim
The document summarizes ancient architecture in India from 3300 BCE to present day. It describes the advanced sewer systems of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Buddhist-inspired architecture under Emperor Ashoka including the pillars bearing his edicts, and temples built from the 6th-12th centuries CE such as the Kailasa temple carved from a single rock face. It then provides extensive details about the construction and design of the Taj Mahal, considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, before concluding with a brief overview of British colonial architecture in India and post-independence works such as the Statue of Unity.
Japanese architecture has been influenced by Buddhism, China, and the climate. Traditional styles use wood construction, tatami mat floors, sliding doors, and feature wooden post-and-beam structures with tiled or thatched roofs. Over time, architectural styles evolved from small prehistoric structures to include Buddhist temple designs in the Asuka period incorporating pagodas and worship halls. Defensive castles emerged in the Azuchi-Momoyama period while the Edo period saw the development of machya townhouses. Modern architecture saw increasing Western influence and the use of new technologies and materials following World War 2.
The Temple of Heaven complex in Beijing consists of three main structures built according to strict philosophical requirements. The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests is a triple-gabled circular building where the Emperor prayed for good harvests. The Imperial Vault of Heaven, a smaller circular building, is located south of the Hall. The southernmost structure is the Circular Mound Altar, an empty three-tiered platform used for worshipping Heaven. The complex incorporates extensive symbolism and precise mathematical and astronomical references in its design.
The document provides information on architectural styles found in Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. It discusses the different types of stupas/pagodas commonly seen in the region, including dome stupas, terrace stupas, and tower stupas. The key architectural elements of Thai Buddhist temples are outlined, such as the chedi, viharn, bot, naga sculptures, and ornate roof decorations. Overall, the architecture in these Southeast Asian countries was heavily influenced by India and reflects the predominant Buddhist religion through the prominent stupas and design of temples.
The document discusses several key aspects of traditional Chinese architecture and culture:
1) Architectural features of Chinese buildings emphasized bilateral symmetry, enclosure through courtyards and sky wells, hierarchy in building placement, and horizontal emphasis.
2) Traditional wooden structures used modular construction of standardized bays ("jian") and exposed wooden frames.
3) Axial layouts following feng shui principles structured cities, complexes, and individual buildings to represent social order and relationships.
4) Religious philosophies like Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism influenced architectural styles of temples and homes.
This document provides information about architectural styles in Nepal. It begins with geographical context, noting Nepal's location between India and China and its topographical divisions. Key architectural influences discussed include climate, materials, history, religion, and social factors. Examples of architectural features are given for various regions, including the Kathmandu Valley cities of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur. Specific monument types described include stupas, temples, and palaces. The document concludes with details on the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan.
2013- 2015 OUR COMMON EUROPEAN ROOTS MEETINGS AND TOPICS
4th project meeting - 28th September – 3rd October 2014 at Liceo Classico Dante Alighieri,
Ravenna, Italy
Topic : “Historical heritage: the remains of the past”.
The document discusses architecture and town planning in ancient China. It describes the major dynasties of ancient China from 2100 BC to 221 BC and the types of structures built during these periods. Key structures discussed include palaces, temples, gardens, and tombs. Major ancient Chinese architectural sites highlighted are the Great Wall of China, Forbidden City, and Temple of Heaven.
This lecture provides an overview of early Mesopotamian civilization between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It discusses the geography and climate of the region, known as the Fertile Crescent, which allowed for the development of irrigation-based agriculture and urban settlements. Sumerians were the first to settle the region around 5000 BC, developing dams, canals and cities like Uruk and Ur. Writing and other innovations emerged as cities grew in size and complexity between 3500-3000 BC. Social classes and kingship developed, with temples becoming important religious and administrative centers marked by ziggurats.
precolonial architecture of Cambodia, Angkor wat , history of architecture AMMU PRADEEP KUMAR
About the precolonial Cambodian architecture , introduction to khmer architecture ,characteristics of khmer architecture , architectural features and planning of Angkor wat.
This document provides tips for preparing for finals exams. It advises students to determine how many finals they have, when they are scheduled, and what percentage of the grade each final counts for. Students should learn what type of final it will be (essay, multiple choice, comprehensive), whether it will be similar to previous tests, and prioritize which finals require more study based on personal strengths and weaknesses. The document recommends starting to study at least two weeks in advance by reviewing material daily, making flashcards, getting help if needed, choosing an environment without distractions, and getting enough sleep. Some things to avoid are cramming, being late for the exam, panicking during the test, and rushing through it.
The Olmecs were the earliest known civilization in Mexico, known for giant carved stone heads. They flourished from 1400 BC to 400 BC before disappearing. The Aztecs ruled central Mexico from 1100-1522 AD, building cities like Tenochtitlan. They had a complex religion involving human sacrifice. They were conquered by the Spanish in 1521. The Mayas occupied the Yucatan peninsula from 1800 BC to 900 AD, developing an accurate calendar, hieroglyphic writing, and advanced math. They built great stone cities before their decline.
ngkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world. Angkor Wat, translated from Khmer (the official language of Cambodia) literally means “City Temple.” As far as names go this is as generic as it gets. Angkor Wat was not the original name given to the temple when it was built in the 12th century.
Thailand is located in Southeast Asia. It borders Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia and Myanmar. Bangkok is the capital city. Theravada Buddhism is the dominant religion in Thailand. The climate is tropical, with three seasons in the north and two seasons in the south. Historically, Thailand has been influenced by the Mon, Khmer, Malay and Tai peoples. Major historical periods include the Sukhothai Kingdom, Ayutthaya Kingdom and the current Rattanakosin period under the Chakri dynasty.
The document provides information about three ancient civilizations - the Maya, Aztec, and Inca. It describes the locations and key features of each, including their religious practices, advances in mathematics and architecture, and their eventual declines. The Maya built cities like Chichen Itza in Mexico and Central America and developed hieroglyphic writing and a calendar. The Aztecs established the city of Tenochtitlan in Mexico and had an empire centered around religious practices like human sacrifice. The Inca ruled from Cuzco in the Andes and built elaborate stone structures and roads while practicing rituals like cranial deformation.
The document summarizes information about stupas located around the world. It describes the origins and symbolism of stupas, and provides details about the structure, architecture, and historical context of specific stupas in India, Japan, Indonesia, and other parts of Asia, including the Great Stupa and Dhamekh Stupa in India, the stupa built by a Japanese monk in Ladakh, and the famous Borobudur Temple in Indonesia. Comparisons are made between some of the large and important stupas discussed.
Ancient Architecture in India and (Case Study: Spatial Planning of Taj Mahal)Peshang hama karim
The document summarizes ancient architecture in India from 3300 BCE to present day. It describes the advanced sewer systems of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Buddhist-inspired architecture under Emperor Ashoka including the pillars bearing his edicts, and temples built from the 6th-12th centuries CE such as the Kailasa temple carved from a single rock face. It then provides extensive details about the construction and design of the Taj Mahal, considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, before concluding with a brief overview of British colonial architecture in India and post-independence works such as the Statue of Unity.
Japanese architecture has been influenced by Buddhism, China, and the climate. Traditional styles use wood construction, tatami mat floors, sliding doors, and feature wooden post-and-beam structures with tiled or thatched roofs. Over time, architectural styles evolved from small prehistoric structures to include Buddhist temple designs in the Asuka period incorporating pagodas and worship halls. Defensive castles emerged in the Azuchi-Momoyama period while the Edo period saw the development of machya townhouses. Modern architecture saw increasing Western influence and the use of new technologies and materials following World War 2.
The Temple of Heaven complex in Beijing consists of three main structures built according to strict philosophical requirements. The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests is a triple-gabled circular building where the Emperor prayed for good harvests. The Imperial Vault of Heaven, a smaller circular building, is located south of the Hall. The southernmost structure is the Circular Mound Altar, an empty three-tiered platform used for worshipping Heaven. The complex incorporates extensive symbolism and precise mathematical and astronomical references in its design.
The document provides information on architectural styles found in Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. It discusses the different types of stupas/pagodas commonly seen in the region, including dome stupas, terrace stupas, and tower stupas. The key architectural elements of Thai Buddhist temples are outlined, such as the chedi, viharn, bot, naga sculptures, and ornate roof decorations. Overall, the architecture in these Southeast Asian countries was heavily influenced by India and reflects the predominant Buddhist religion through the prominent stupas and design of temples.
The document discusses several key aspects of traditional Chinese architecture and culture:
1) Architectural features of Chinese buildings emphasized bilateral symmetry, enclosure through courtyards and sky wells, hierarchy in building placement, and horizontal emphasis.
2) Traditional wooden structures used modular construction of standardized bays ("jian") and exposed wooden frames.
3) Axial layouts following feng shui principles structured cities, complexes, and individual buildings to represent social order and relationships.
4) Religious philosophies like Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism influenced architectural styles of temples and homes.
This document provides information about architectural styles in Nepal. It begins with geographical context, noting Nepal's location between India and China and its topographical divisions. Key architectural influences discussed include climate, materials, history, religion, and social factors. Examples of architectural features are given for various regions, including the Kathmandu Valley cities of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur. Specific monument types described include stupas, temples, and palaces. The document concludes with details on the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan.
2013- 2015 OUR COMMON EUROPEAN ROOTS MEETINGS AND TOPICS
4th project meeting - 28th September – 3rd October 2014 at Liceo Classico Dante Alighieri,
Ravenna, Italy
Topic : “Historical heritage: the remains of the past”.
The document discusses architecture and town planning in ancient China. It describes the major dynasties of ancient China from 2100 BC to 221 BC and the types of structures built during these periods. Key structures discussed include palaces, temples, gardens, and tombs. Major ancient Chinese architectural sites highlighted are the Great Wall of China, Forbidden City, and Temple of Heaven.
This lecture provides an overview of early Mesopotamian civilization between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It discusses the geography and climate of the region, known as the Fertile Crescent, which allowed for the development of irrigation-based agriculture and urban settlements. Sumerians were the first to settle the region around 5000 BC, developing dams, canals and cities like Uruk and Ur. Writing and other innovations emerged as cities grew in size and complexity between 3500-3000 BC. Social classes and kingship developed, with temples becoming important religious and administrative centers marked by ziggurats.
precolonial architecture of Cambodia, Angkor wat , history of architecture AMMU PRADEEP KUMAR
About the precolonial Cambodian architecture , introduction to khmer architecture ,characteristics of khmer architecture , architectural features and planning of Angkor wat.
This document provides tips for preparing for finals exams. It advises students to determine how many finals they have, when they are scheduled, and what percentage of the grade each final counts for. Students should learn what type of final it will be (essay, multiple choice, comprehensive), whether it will be similar to previous tests, and prioritize which finals require more study based on personal strengths and weaknesses. The document recommends starting to study at least two weeks in advance by reviewing material daily, making flashcards, getting help if needed, choosing an environment without distractions, and getting enough sleep. Some things to avoid are cramming, being late for the exam, panicking during the test, and rushing through it.
The Olmecs were the earliest known civilization in Mexico, known for giant carved stone heads. They flourished from 1400 BC to 400 BC before disappearing. The Aztecs ruled central Mexico from 1100-1522 AD, building cities like Tenochtitlan. They had a complex religion involving human sacrifice. They were conquered by the Spanish in 1521. The Mayas occupied the Yucatan peninsula from 1800 BC to 900 AD, developing an accurate calendar, hieroglyphic writing, and advanced math. They built great stone cities before their decline.
The document summarizes the water system designed and built by the Inca at the archaeological site of Machu Picchu in Peru. The Inca engineers located a natural spring and built a 749m long stone canal with a 3% slope to carry water from the spring to a series of 16 fountains within the city. The fountains were arranged hierarchically and integrated with sophisticated drainage and irrigation systems to supply the population with water and protect against erosion. The system is still functional today, demonstrating advanced hydrological engineering by the Inca civilization.
Inca Civilization PPT made on our 3rd year History class. There are videos in the PPT and they will just automatically play (download file for best viewing)
This document contains 51 images and captions that provide an overview of Inca architecture, sites, and structures in and around Cuzco, Peru between 1400-1532 CE. Some of the key sites and structures discussed include the Qorikancha temple in Cuzco, the fortress of Saqsawaman, the mountainside city of Machu Picchu, and the agricultural center of Ollantaytambo. The images show examples of Inca masonry techniques, carved stones, shrines integrated with the natural landscape, and structures used for religious ceremonies, burials, and agricultural production. The document emphasizes how Inca architecture was designed in consideration of the local geography and incorporated natural features like caves
Machu Picchu is a 15th century Inca site located in Peru on a mountain ridge above the Sacred Valley. It is believed to have been built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti. Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", Machu Picchu is an iconic symbol of Inca civilization. It uses polished dry-stone walls cut precisely without mortar in the classical Inca architectural style. The site and its cloud forest habitat are now protected as a national park.
Machu Picchu fue construido en el siglo XV por el inca Pachacutec como una ciudadela interconectada al Imperio Inca a través de caminos. Ubicada en las montañas de los Andes peruanos a 112 km de Cusco, la altitud promedio de Machu Picchu es de 2453 metros sobre el nivel del mar y consiste en sectores agrícolas y urbanos.
Machu Picchu was built in the 15th century by the Inca leader Pachacútec. It was located high in the Andes mountains near Cuzco, Peru and was inhabited for about 100 years until the Spanish conquered the Inca territories in the 15th century. The site remained hidden for many years until it was rediscovered in 1911 by Yale professor Hiram Bingham. Today it is one of Peru's most famous tourist attractions, known worldwide for its impressive Inca architecture and mountainous setting.
Experts argue that the structures found at Machu Picchu indicate it was used as an Inca observatory to track the sun's movements and create calendars needed by farmers to plant crops. Archaeologists have studied artifacts found at the site, such as pottery fragments and metal pins, and the site's features to reconstruct how it functioned as an observatory, showing it was likely used to study the sun.
Machu Picchu is an ancient Inca city located high in the Andes mountains in Peru. In 1911, American historian Hiram Bingham was led to the site by local guides and claimed to have "discovered" it, though others had likely encountered it before. Bingham documented and publicized his findings, bringing international attention to Machu Picchu. While Bingham promoted his role as discoverer, some dispute this title given that others had previously explored the region and indigenous people still lived in the area at the time of his arrival. Today, Machu Picchu is recognized as one of the greatest archaeological sites in South America.
1. Ancient civilizations in Central and South America such as the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca developed advanced farming techniques, polytheistic religions, and architectural achievements like pyramids and calendars.
2. The Aztec and Inca empires dominated large regions through military power and established governance systems, but disease and superior weapons helped the Spanish conquistadors like Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro conquer these civilizations in the 16th century.
3. Key cultural aspects included Maya calendars and mathematics, Aztec floating gardens and education systems, and Inca infrastructure like roads and medical knowledge.
barch_building material-1_Types of lime, Classification of lime, comparison between fat lime and hydraulic lime, Manufacturing
process slaking, Hardening – Testing and Storage, Lime putty, Precautions in handling and uses of
lime.
Stone masonry involves shaping stone into geometric shapes and arranging them, often with mortar. There are different types of stonemasons who specialize in tasks like quarrying, sawing, carving, fixing, and memorial carving. Stonemasons use various tools like chisels and mallets to shape igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary stones. They undergo comprehensive training and the trade has existed for thousands of years, playing an important role in building cathedrals, castles, and other stone structures throughout history. Modern tools have made aspects of the work easier but many traditional techniques remain.
Ancient artifacts and buildings - mysteries of the past - part 2Kinga Brady
An ongoing collection of artefacts, building of our long-lost past - there are two parts. This is a personal collection of our ancient history - crazy questions that follow question the official theories
The document provides an overview of Mesopotamian civilization and its architectural characteristics. Mesopotamia, located in modern-day Iraq, saw the rise and fall of many empires including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Common architectural features included mudbricks, ziggurats, and palaces divided into courtyards. Examples highlighted include the Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu, the palace at Mari, the Hanging Gardens and walls of Babylon, and the Assyrian palaces and cities of Ashur, Nimrud, Nineveh, and Khorsabad.
The document describes several types of megalithic monuments found in Ireland dating back to 3200 BC, including portal dolmens, court cairns, and passage tombs. It focuses on the passage tombs of Newgrange, Knowth, and Dowth located in the Boyne Valley area of Ireland, which have elaborate decorations and were built with astronomical alignments, such as allowing sunlight to enter the tombs at the winter solstice. The passage tombs have corbelled roofs and were used as burial chambers for cremated remains, with some stones decorated with spiral and abstract patterns.
Vernacular architecture case study with examplesVISHAKA BOTHRA
case study on vernacular architecture, examples of vernacular architecture, literature case study of vernacular architecture, examples of vernacular architecture of India, Maharashtra, Nanded, Aurangabad, complete case study on vernacular architecture
The document discusses the evolution of shelters from early prehistoric times to modern periods. It describes how early humans initially took shelter in trees and caves for protection, before beginning to construct more rudimentary shelters using stones, wood and other natural materials. Over time, shelters incorporated new building materials like clay bricks and glass, and architectural styles advanced with developments in building techniques during historical periods such as the Stone Age, Early Modern Period and contemporary styles of kachcha, semi-pukka and pakka construction. The document traces the progression of shelter design and materials in tandem with human technological and societal development.
Cyclopean masonry is a type of stonework used in Mycenaean architecture characterized by roughly fitted limestone boulders without mortar. The most famous examples are the massive walls of Mycenae and Tiryns, which classical Greeks believed were built by the mythical Cyclopes due to the enormous boulders used. Cyclopean masonry involves irregularly shaped limestone boulders fitted together without mortar and sometimes with smaller stones filling the gaps. It was a distinctive building style of Mycenaean fortifications, though the term is now more broadly used to describe similar stonework from other cultures.
The document discusses Vedic and early Buddhist architecture in India from 1500 BC to 800 BC. It describes how the perishable timber architecture of the Vedic period, consisting of circular huts and villages, was later recorded and imitated in stone structures like the Sanchi Stupa. Key architectural elements of Vedic villages like fences, gates, windows and column bases were replicated in Buddhist caves, stupas, and chaitya prayer halls, establishing the foundation for later Indian architecture. The three main religious structures of early Buddhism—stupas, chaityas, and viharas (monasteries)—are also outlined.
This document summarizes the history and techniques of stonemasonry. It discusses how stonemasonry has been used since ancient times to construct important structures like the Taj Mahal, Great Wall of China, and Egyptian pyramids. It describes the different roles of apprentices, journeymen, and master masons during the medieval period. The document also outlines various stone types used in masonry like granite, limestone, and sandstone. It concludes by discussing modern stonemasonry techniques such as fixer masonry, memorial masonry, and slipform stonemasonry.
What is an Arch?
An arch is a structure that spans a space and supports structure and weight above it.
Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian brick architecture and their systematic use started with the Ancient Romans who were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures.
What are the Types of Arches?
Arches have many forms, but all fall into three basic categories: Circular, pointed, and parabolic.
Arches with a circular form, also referred to as rounded arch, were commonly employed by the builders of ancient history, heavy masonry arches.
Ancient Roman builders relied heavily on the rounded arch to span large, open areas.
Several rounded arches placed in-line, end-to-end, form an arcade, such as the Roman aqueduct.
Pointed arches were most often used by builders of Gothic-style architecture.
The advantage to using a pointed arch, rather than a circular arch, is that the arch action in a pointed arch produces less thrust at the base.
This innovation allowed for taller and more closely spaced openings, typical of Gothic architecture
Vaults are essentially "adjacent arches [that] are assembled side by side."
If vaults intersect, complex forms are produced with the intersections.
The forms, along with the "strongly expressed ribs at the vault intersections, were dominant architectural features of Gothic cathedrals."
The parabolic arch employs the principle that when weight is uniformly applied to an arch, the internal compression resulting from that weight will follow a parabolic profile.
Of any arch type, the parabolic arch produces the most thrust at the base, but can span the largest areas.
It is commonly used in bridge design, where long spans are needed.
People have been constructing buildings since prehistory using materials available locally like mud bricks, stone, and wood. Ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome made significant advancements, with mud bricks, stone, wood, and concrete commonly used. Industrialization in the 18th-19th centuries introduced new materials like steel and construction methods. The 20th century saw further developments including high-rise buildings, computer-aided design, heavy equipment, and a focus on sustainability.
Chapple, R. M. 2014 Mahee Castle, Co. Down. Blogspot postRobert M Chapple
Mahee Castle is located near Nendrum Monastery in County Down. It is the remains of a tower house built in 1570. The castle was partially excavated in 2001 and 2002, revealing details of its construction and occupation. It appears to have been abandoned in the early 17th century after a relatively short period of use. Archaeological evidence uncovered drainage systems, cobbled floors, and artifacts that provide insight into life at the castle when it was inhabited. Today only parts of the tower and surrounding walls still stand.
There were three main stages in the development of human settlements according to the document:
1. Early hunter-gatherer nomadic stage with no permanent settlements.
2. Development of grouping into nomadic bands for defense and hunting.
3. Permanent agricultural settlements emerged after the discovery of fire, tools, and agriculture. Specialization and development of arts and sciences occurred. Early structures included huts, tents, caves and megaliths like menhirs, dolmens and cromlechs. Architecture evolved from simple dwellings to planned villages.
The conservation of the Shri Govindji Temple in Manipur was needed to preserve an important example of terracotta architecture and culture. The temple, built in 1846, had deteriorated over time due to weathering, earthquakes, and vegetation growth. The conservation project involved dismantling and rebuilding damaged sections like the collapsed roof and cracked walls. Original materials like bricks and teak wood were reused when possible. Conservation techniques like using epoxy seals and replacing deteriorated wood helped restore the temple's structure while maintaining its historic character. The project promoted local crafts and spread awareness of Manipur's cultural heritage.
Mohenjo-Daro was an ancient Indus Valley city that thrived around 2500 BC with a population of around 40,000 people. It was carefully planned with wide, straight streets in a grid pattern along with underground drains and sewers. Homes had indoor plumbing and wells. The city placed strong emphasis on cleanliness as evidenced by bathing facilities and toilets that drained into the city's complex sewage system, keeping the community clean.
This document provides a timeline and overview of early architecture from prehistoric times through the Neolithic period. It describes the simple structures of the Paleolithic era such as caves and tents, and notes that during this time people were nomadic. During the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, as agriculture developed, structures became more permanent with wooden huts and longhouses. It also discusses various types of megalithic structures from these early periods such as menhirs, dolmens, cromlechs, and tumuli.
The document discusses the evolution of anchors from ancient to modern times. It begins with stone anchors and evolves to include wood and lead designs in the Bronze Age. The advent of iron allowed for standardized, mass produced anchors beginning in the 6th century. Different anchor patterns can help archaeologists date and source shipwrecks. While design and materials have advanced, older anchor styles remain effective today.
The document discusses early human shelters from prehistoric times. It describes how the earliest shelters were found naturally in caves or were simple structures made from available natural materials. While caves were sometimes used, they were likely not the most common dwelling. Shelters evolved from simple rock shelters to constructed huts made of materials like reeds or animal skins. Characteristics of prehistoric shelters included their relationship to the means of survival like hunting and gathering. Permanent settlements emerged as agriculture developed, allowing for more stable food sources and the development of villages and specialized occupations. A variety of primitive shelter types are described that showed adaptations to different environments and materials.
Project 1 stone age_bronze age_iron ageMartin Brown
1. The document discusses the development of megalithic tombs and wedge tombs in Ireland during the Neolithic period. It describes the different types of megalithic tombs including court tombs, portal dolmens, passage tombs, and wedge tombs.
2. It provides details on the wedge-shaped gallery grave located at Lough Gur, including that it dates to around 2500 BC and has two chambers - a main chamber and portico. Artifacts found inside included human bones and animal remains.
3. The document outlines some of the decorative motifs found on megalithic art in passage tombs, including circles, spirals, arcs, lozenges, and parallel lines.
2. Inca architecture is widely known for its fine masonry, which features
precisely cut and shaped stones closely fitted without mortar
The most common composite form in Inca architecture was the kancha, a
rectangular enclosure housing three or more rectangular buildings placed
symmetrically around a central courtyard
Ollantaytambo is a town and an Inca archaeological site in southern Peru
some 60 kilometers northwest of the city of Cusco
Ar. Navdeep Shukla &Ar. Shruti H. Kapoor
3. The citadel of Machu Picchu, with Huayna Picchu in the background
4.
5.
6. The buildings are
MATERIAL
made out of local
grey-white granite.
The quality of the
stonework varies
considerably, and
not simply because
sacred buildings
always displayed
greater
craftsmanship than
residential and
other mundane
buildings. The
largest, megalithic
blocks and finest
stonework are
always found in the
lower levels of the
buildings. As at
other sites, certain
structures, or parts
of them,
undoubtedly
predate the Incas.
19. Inca walls had numerous design
details that helped protect them
against collapsing in an
earthquake. Doors and windows
are trapezoidal and tilt inward
from bottom to top; corners
usually are rounded; inside
corners often incline slightly into
the rooms; and ―L‖-shaped
blocks often were used to tie
outside corners of the structure
together. These walls do not rise
straight from bottom to top but
are offset slightly from row to
row
Part of the Enclosure of the Ten Niches.
20.
21. The largest stone in the Wall of the Six Monoliths is about 4.3 m high, 2.1 m wide, 1.8
m thick, and weighs about 50 tonnes. The six monoliths are joined with narrow fillet
stones – a style found nowhere else in the Inca empire
22. Ollantaytambo bath of the princess Stevage
Detail of drainage canal at the side of
the dry moat, stone nail which was
used to tie the straw roofs, holes
through which removable doors were
secured
25. Placement of these trapezoidal openings was primarily
functional, but occasionally, Esthetic arrangement might
dominate the placement of the trapezoids, if there was no
conflict with functionality.
26. Playful handling of flowing water.
Sparkling streams cascade from stone
spouts, sometimes decorated with
carved designs, into joyfully splashing
basins, then flow through quite
unnecessarily complex stone channels
to pour into the next fountain (or bath,
as the fountains are sometimes referred
to) and so on from fountain to fountain,
one after the other. The Inkas employed
the sight and sound of water as an
element of architectural design and
evidently enjoyed demonstrating their
mastery over the course of this
essential fluid.
27. Stone was cut and shaped mainly with stone tools. Bronze or copper tools may
also have been used, but would be of limited use with the hard varieties of
igneous rock commonly used by the Inca.
The row of narrow holes forming the line
along which it was to be split seem to
bespeak the use of a metal tool.
28. The conquistadores admired Inka stonework sufficiently to employ Inka
stonecutters and techniques in colonial buildings, and many of the "ancient
Inka" walls in Cusco belong to the colonial period, such as this wall with
carved snakes and stones in non-Incaic shapes.
29. It is assumed the Inkas knew the
technique of splitting rock using
wooden wedges placed in cracks,
then soaked in water, until the
expanding wood split the rock-- a
method developed independently
by many ancient societies.
"Peck marks" or, more properly, percussion marks are obvious on much
Inka stonework.
30. The Inkas could also drill holes through
rock, such as in this ring of unknown
function projecting from a wall in Machu
Picchu. Holes were probably drilled
using grit and some sort of pestle stone.
Holes drilled through rock are narrowest in the middle and flare outwards, as
drilling with a pestle and grit would inevitably wallow out the first-drilled
portions of the hole.
31. Twelve cornered stone
The glory of Inka stonecutting lies in their ability to cut unusual shapes
and fit them tightly together, as exemplified by the famous "twelve-
cornered stone" found in a wall of the palace of the Inka Roca. It is both a
cliché and a verity that the stones are so closely fitted that a knife blade
cannot be jammed between them. How did they achieve these amazing
close tolerances?
32. Inkas used a technique known as scribing and coping to fit their wonderful jigsaw-
puzzle stones
This technique is used to shape
dove-tail joins of logs at the corners
of log cabins, resulting in logs
carefully fitted together with little or
no gap between the cut log faces. A
related technique could have been
used by the Inkas to shape their
stones.
The fact that ‗Inca‘ walls tend to incline
inwards by 3° to 5° also contributes to their
stability.
33.
34. For administrative buildings and noble
houses, medium rocks, and for fortresses
and religious sites, enormous ones. In both
cases the rocks were carved completely
and not only on their outer edge, to ensure
that the joints were perfect, and that not
even a pin could go through them. This
also ensured that the construction would
last in time.
Some Inca buildings were constructed using mortar, but by Inca standards
this was quick, shoddy construction, and was not used in the building of
important structures. Peru is a highly seismicland, and mortar-free
construction was more earthquake-resistant than using mortar. The stones of
the dry-stone walls built by the Incas can move slightly and resettle without
the walls collapsing.
35.
36. View of the residential section of Machu
Picchu.
37. Interior of a partially restored Inca building, featuring
trapezoidal windows.
38.
39. Temple of the sun ,the only circular building, with ritual meaning in
Machu Picchu
40. Utilization of land ,caves, rocks and steep slopes of the Andes in
their favor
41. Trapezoidal niches, typical of Inca style ,in the so called house of the
priest located by the temple of the sun
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47. Tambo Machay, a site for ritual bathing, consists of massive stone walls with elegant
niches, band a series of water fountains cascading from channels hidden within the
structure.
50. Walls were constructed through a number
of different techniques which could range
from clay packed around a wooden frame
through to stone blocks and bricks held
together by mortar.
51. These techniques had different names such as Opus Mixtum, Opus Reticulatum
or Opus Incertum. The different techniques were used according to preference of
the particular age, availability of materials, aesthetic result and of course
structural function.
Roman Etruscan walls Roman wall built in "opus reticulatum"
52.
53. Walls:
OPUS QUADRATUM : Rectangular blocks of stone secured with dowels
OPUS INSERTUM : Good mortar of lime & sand , Stones arranged in a loose
pattern with small size stone Like a polygonal wall
OPUS RETICULATUM : Pattern was regular & defined. Stones were at fixed lines,
each square in shape
54. Opus quadratum was the method of building walls, roads, and bridges by
placing cut stone blocks in close proximity, sometimes without mortar or
another binding substance. The Latin term translates roughly as square work
Opus quadratum is an ancient roman construction technique, in which
squared blocks of stone of the same height were set in parallel courses,
often without the use of mortar
56. Opus Incertum
Using irregular shaped and random placed uncut stones or fist-sized tufa blocks
inserted in a core of opus caementicium, used from the beginning of the 2nd
century B.C, later superseded by opus (quasi) reticulatum
The term literally means "uncertain work," possibly referring to the irregular
appearance of walls built using this technique.
Small, irregularly shaped pieces of stone — about 4 inches (about 100 millimeters)
in diameter — were used for opus incertum.
59. Opus Craticium
Term both used for wattle work and walls of half-timer construction, filled in
with stones and/or straw and plastered with mortar
60. Opus (quasi) Reticulatum
Small square tufa blocks placed diagonally to form a diamond-shaped mesh pattern,
often supplemented by other materials at frames of windows and doors or at
reinforments at corners of buildings with oblong tufa blocks
61. Opus Testaceum / latericium
Brick faced masonry - kiln-backed bricks; the dominant technique throughout the
imperial period
62.
63. Opus (retilatum) mixtum
Masonry of reticulated material
reinforced and/or intersected by brick
bands or interlocked with bricks
64.
65. Opus vittatum
Oblong (or occasionally square) Tufa blocks intersected by one or more brick bands
at regular distances
66. Opus Sectile
Decoration patterns and figures at walls (and floors) with precisely cut pieces of
polychrome stone, usually marble
67. Opus spicatum
Walls (and floors) made of quite small elongated tiles, laid in a fishbone
pattern