This document provides an overview of how animals move through the skeletal and muscular systems. It discusses the three types of skeletons (hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton), focusing on the human skeletal system. It also describes bone structure and function, skeletal joints, and how bones and muscles interact. Additionally, it details the structure of skeletal muscle from fibers to sarcomeres and explains the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Finally, it discusses properties of whole muscles including muscle tension and fatigue.
The skeletal system has 6 main functions including providing support and protecting internal organs. Bone is made up of water, organic proteins, and mineral salts. It is constantly remodeling and made of two main tissues, bone and cartilage. The skeletal system contains long bones, flat bones, and irregular bones that each have specific structures like compact and spongy bone. Bone growth and repair are complex processes involving cells like osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Calcium levels, hormones, and mechanical forces all influence bone metabolism and aging affects bone density and strength.
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body.
The musculoskeletal system consists of two main systems - the skeletal system and the muscular system. The three types of muscles are smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles that produce movement and are attached to bones via tendons. Bones provide structure, protect organs, allow movement, produce blood cells, and store minerals. The skeletal system works with skeletal muscles to provide functions like protection, support, movement, and mineral storage.
The document summarizes key points about the human skeletal system and muscle function. It describes that the human skeleton consists of 206 bones that make up the axial skeleton (skull, vertebrae, ribs) and appendicular skeleton (arms, legs, shoulders, pelvis). It also explains that muscles contract through the sliding filament mechanism where actin filaments slide along myosin filaments, shortening the muscle.
The document discusses human movement and muscle structure and function. It describes how bones, ligaments, muscles and tendons work together at joints like the elbow, facilitated by nerves. Muscle contraction occurs when actin and myosin filaments slide past each other within sarcomeres in response to calcium ion release. The elbow joint contains cartilage, synovial fluid and antagonistic biceps and triceps muscles that work with the ulna and radius bones to enable flexion and extension.
The musculoskeletal system consists of bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons and ligaments and works together to allow for movement and provide support to the body. It has three main functions - supporting the body, allowing for motion, and protecting vital organs. There are three main types of muscles - skeletal, smooth and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and attached to bones via tendons. Smooth muscle is involuntary and found in internal organs. Cardiac muscle is only located in the heart. The skeletal system provides points of attachment for muscles, supports the body, protects organs, stores minerals, and makes blood cells. It consists of long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid bones. Joints connect bones together and include fibrous
The skeletal system is composed of 206 bones and provides support, protection, movement, blood cell production, calcium storage, and endocrine regulation. It consists of two divisions: the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and hyoid bone, and provides support and protection for internal organs; and the appendicular skeleton of 126 bones including the pectoral girdle, upper and lower limbs, and pelvic girdle. Cartilage, found at joints, provides flexibility and cushioning between bones. The three types are hyaline, fibro, and elastic cartilage located in various parts of the body.
A detail account of Bones, their histological features, classification, composition, Formation, blood and nerve supply, functions, plus some interesting facts about bones.
The skeletal system has 6 main functions including providing support and protecting internal organs. Bone is made up of water, organic proteins, and mineral salts. It is constantly remodeling and made of two main tissues, bone and cartilage. The skeletal system contains long bones, flat bones, and irregular bones that each have specific structures like compact and spongy bone. Bone growth and repair are complex processes involving cells like osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Calcium levels, hormones, and mechanical forces all influence bone metabolism and aging affects bone density and strength.
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body.
The musculoskeletal system consists of two main systems - the skeletal system and the muscular system. The three types of muscles are smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles that produce movement and are attached to bones via tendons. Bones provide structure, protect organs, allow movement, produce blood cells, and store minerals. The skeletal system works with skeletal muscles to provide functions like protection, support, movement, and mineral storage.
The document summarizes key points about the human skeletal system and muscle function. It describes that the human skeleton consists of 206 bones that make up the axial skeleton (skull, vertebrae, ribs) and appendicular skeleton (arms, legs, shoulders, pelvis). It also explains that muscles contract through the sliding filament mechanism where actin filaments slide along myosin filaments, shortening the muscle.
The document discusses human movement and muscle structure and function. It describes how bones, ligaments, muscles and tendons work together at joints like the elbow, facilitated by nerves. Muscle contraction occurs when actin and myosin filaments slide past each other within sarcomeres in response to calcium ion release. The elbow joint contains cartilage, synovial fluid and antagonistic biceps and triceps muscles that work with the ulna and radius bones to enable flexion and extension.
The musculoskeletal system consists of bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons and ligaments and works together to allow for movement and provide support to the body. It has three main functions - supporting the body, allowing for motion, and protecting vital organs. There are three main types of muscles - skeletal, smooth and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and attached to bones via tendons. Smooth muscle is involuntary and found in internal organs. Cardiac muscle is only located in the heart. The skeletal system provides points of attachment for muscles, supports the body, protects organs, stores minerals, and makes blood cells. It consists of long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid bones. Joints connect bones together and include fibrous
The skeletal system is composed of 206 bones and provides support, protection, movement, blood cell production, calcium storage, and endocrine regulation. It consists of two divisions: the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and hyoid bone, and provides support and protection for internal organs; and the appendicular skeleton of 126 bones including the pectoral girdle, upper and lower limbs, and pelvic girdle. Cartilage, found at joints, provides flexibility and cushioning between bones. The three types are hyaline, fibro, and elastic cartilage located in various parts of the body.
A detail account of Bones, their histological features, classification, composition, Formation, blood and nerve supply, functions, plus some interesting facts about bones.
The document discusses muscle structure and function, including:
1) Muscles contract through the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, powered by ATP hydrolysis in the myosin cross-bridges.
2) Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum binds to troponin, allowing myosin to bind to actin and the power stroke to occur.
3) Repeated binding and detachment of myosin cross-bridges causes the filaments to slide past each other, shortening the sarcomere and muscle.
The document describes the structure and function of muscular tissue. It discusses the three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is made of long fibers that contain myofibrils composed of sarcomeres. Sarcomeres contain thin filaments of actin and thick filaments of myosin that slide past each other during muscle contraction. Contraction is driven by a sliding filament mechanism involving the binding and detachment of myosin from actin when calcium levels rise. Muscle contraction leads to movement through this excitation-contraction coupling process between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
The document discusses the skeletal system and its functions. It is divided into two main parts - the axial skeleton which forms the body's core, and the appendicular skeleton which includes the arms, legs, shoulders and hips. There are five types of bones - long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Joints allow movement and are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous or synovial. Muscles work in pairs to move bones at joints through actions like flexion, extension and rotation. The muscular system functions to produce movement through muscle contraction and relaxation.
a compiled resources mainly to facilitate learning outcomes
Identify types of muscle tissues
Describe types of skeletal system
Identify human skeletal system
Identify the component of human musculo-skeletal system
Explain how muscle contracts
Describe muscle and bone relationships
There are two main types of bone tissue: compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone looks solid and is densely packed, consisting of concentric cylindrical layers surrounding central canals. Spongy bone has a porous, sponge-like appearance due to trabeculae that form bone spicules and columns, leaving spaces between them. Both tissues have different microscopic structures that give them their distinct macroscopic appearances. Bone tissue serves important functions as the main structural support of the body, protecting internal organs, providing attachment sites for tendons and muscles, housing bone marrow, and storing minerals.
This document provides an overview of muscle anatomy. It begins by defining muscle tissue and its basic properties, including excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity. The three main types of muscle are then described: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscle makes up the majority of muscle in the body and is further detailed, including its structure, types of contractions, and naming conventions.
Bone provides structure and support to the body through its skeleton framework. It has several important functions including support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and energy storage. Bone is composed of cells, collagen fibers, and hydroxyapatite crystals that calcify and harden it. There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton that are divided into the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, ribs) and appendicular skeleton (limbs). Bones can be classified based on their location, size, shape and internal structure. Long bones are found in the limbs and have a shaft and expanded ends. Bone tissue is either compact or spongy and contains osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts that allow bone to
This document provides an overview of the skeletal and muscular systems. It begins by labeling the parts of a long bone, then describes the two groups that make up the skeletal system - the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, ribs, sternum, and vertebral column. It then details the specific bones that make up these areas. The appendicular skeleton attaches to the axial skeleton and includes the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. The document also outlines the functions of the skeletal system and describes the four types of bones. It defines anatomical terminology and discusses the roles of connective tissues like cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. Finally
The skeletal system provides structure and protection for the body. It is made of bones connected by ligaments at joints, and bone marrow inside bones produces blood cells. The skeleton changes over one's lifetime from a flexible newborn skeleton with over 300 bones to the 206 bone adult skeleton. Bones are constantly being built and repaired by osteoblasts and osteoclasts throughout life.
The document discusses the roles and structures of the musculoskeletal system. It covers how bones and joints provide movement, support, and protection by acting as levers and allowing certain motions at synovial joints. Muscles work in antagonistic pairs across joints to flex and extend. Muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils containing sarcomeres, which contract through the sliding of actin and myosin filaments when calcium ions bind tropomyosin and troponin.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and associated tissues that provide structure, protection, movement, and mineral storage. Bones are living tissues composed of cells, collagen fibers, and minerals. There are four types of bones - long, short, flat, and irregular - with different structures adapted to their functions. Bones develop through intramembranous or endochondral ossification and are remodeled throughout life by bone cells.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and joints which provide structure, protect organs, and enable movement. It includes elements like the skull, rib cage, backbone, and limbs. Joints are where two bones meet and are held together by ligaments, allowing movement except in the skull. There are different types of joints like hinge, ball-and-socket, and pivot joints. Muscles connect to bones via tendons and work with the skeletal system to produce movement, with some muscles being voluntary and others involuntary.
There are four main types of bones: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Long bones have a shaft and two articulating ends, examples being the femur and humerus. Short bones are cube-shaped like wrist and ankle bones. Flat bones are broad and thin, found in the skull, shoulder blades, ribs, and sternum. Irregular bones come in various shapes and sizes, like the patella. Bones are made up of cells, fibers, and extracellular matrix. They provide structure, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation to the body. Bone formation occurs through two processes - intramembranous ossification which forms flat bones, and endochondral oss
The skeletal system has several important functions including providing structure, protecting organs, allowing for movement, producing blood cells, and storing minerals. It is composed of 206 bones that are divided into the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs, and the appendicular skeleton which includes the limbs and their attachments. The bones come in various shapes and serve specific protective or movement-related roles throughout the body.
This document discusses the different types of muscle tissue, including skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. It focuses on the structure and function of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle is made up of parallel bundles of long multinucleated fibers that produce skeletal movement. Each muscle fiber is an individual muscle cell surrounded by the sarcolemma membrane with multiple oval nuclei placed peripherally. Skeletal muscle is connected to bone via tough tendons composed of dense collagen fibers. Fascia layers like the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium surround bundles and individual fibers of muscle.
The skeletal system includes bones and cartilage that provide structure, allow for movement, and protect organs. The medical specialty of orthopedics focuses on treating the skeleton and joints. Skeletal tissue includes cartilage and bone, which are types of dense connective tissue. Bones have important functions like support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell production. Bone is made up of osteogenic cells, osteoblasts that form bone, osteocytes embedded in bone matrix, and osteoclasts that resorb bone. There are different types of bones like long bones with a diaphysis, epiphyses, and metaphysis. Bone formation occurs through intramembranous ossification or endochondral ossification. Common bone
This document provides an overview of the muscular system, including the structure and function of muscles. It discusses the three main types of muscles - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac - and their characteristics. Skeletal muscles, also called voluntary muscles, are under conscious control and allow for movement. The major skeletal muscles and their actions are identified. The document also examines how muscles contract through isotonic, eccentric, and isometric contractions, and how muscle fibers and their fast-twitch and slow-twitch types relate to muscle performance and endurance.
This document discusses animal tissues, organs, and organ systems. It begins by explaining the potential of stem cells and the four major tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue. It then describes how tissues combine to form organs, and how organs interact in organ systems to perform functions like homeostasis. Key organ systems are identified like the integumentary, digestive, respiratory, circulatory, urinary and nervous systems. The role of these systems in maintaining homeostasis of processes like body temperature is explained through negative feedback loops involving sensory receptors, integrators and effectors.
There are two main types of computer graphics - raster (composed of pixels) and vector (composed of paths). Raster images are better known as bitmaps and use a grid of pixels, while vector graphics use mathematical relationships between points and paths. Bitmaps look jagged when enlarged but vectors remain smooth at any size. Anti-aliasing can make bitmaps appear smoother by applying subtle pixel transitions along edges. Vectors are best for illustrations and layouts while bitmaps are suited to photos with subtle shading details.
This document discusses the concept of a bill of rights, which is a list of fundamental rights that protects citizens from government overreach. It outlines different classes of rights, including natural rights, constitutional rights, and statutory rights. Constitutional rights are further divided into political rights, civil rights, social and economic rights, and rights of the accused. The document also examines the relationship between state authority and individual freedom, noting there can be conflicts between individual rights and group welfare that are resolved by the judiciary.
The document discusses muscle structure and function, including:
1) Muscles contract through the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, powered by ATP hydrolysis in the myosin cross-bridges.
2) Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum binds to troponin, allowing myosin to bind to actin and the power stroke to occur.
3) Repeated binding and detachment of myosin cross-bridges causes the filaments to slide past each other, shortening the sarcomere and muscle.
The document describes the structure and function of muscular tissue. It discusses the three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is made of long fibers that contain myofibrils composed of sarcomeres. Sarcomeres contain thin filaments of actin and thick filaments of myosin that slide past each other during muscle contraction. Contraction is driven by a sliding filament mechanism involving the binding and detachment of myosin from actin when calcium levels rise. Muscle contraction leads to movement through this excitation-contraction coupling process between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
The document discusses the skeletal system and its functions. It is divided into two main parts - the axial skeleton which forms the body's core, and the appendicular skeleton which includes the arms, legs, shoulders and hips. There are five types of bones - long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Joints allow movement and are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous or synovial. Muscles work in pairs to move bones at joints through actions like flexion, extension and rotation. The muscular system functions to produce movement through muscle contraction and relaxation.
a compiled resources mainly to facilitate learning outcomes
Identify types of muscle tissues
Describe types of skeletal system
Identify human skeletal system
Identify the component of human musculo-skeletal system
Explain how muscle contracts
Describe muscle and bone relationships
There are two main types of bone tissue: compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone looks solid and is densely packed, consisting of concentric cylindrical layers surrounding central canals. Spongy bone has a porous, sponge-like appearance due to trabeculae that form bone spicules and columns, leaving spaces between them. Both tissues have different microscopic structures that give them their distinct macroscopic appearances. Bone tissue serves important functions as the main structural support of the body, protecting internal organs, providing attachment sites for tendons and muscles, housing bone marrow, and storing minerals.
This document provides an overview of muscle anatomy. It begins by defining muscle tissue and its basic properties, including excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity. The three main types of muscle are then described: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscle makes up the majority of muscle in the body and is further detailed, including its structure, types of contractions, and naming conventions.
Bone provides structure and support to the body through its skeleton framework. It has several important functions including support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and energy storage. Bone is composed of cells, collagen fibers, and hydroxyapatite crystals that calcify and harden it. There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton that are divided into the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, ribs) and appendicular skeleton (limbs). Bones can be classified based on their location, size, shape and internal structure. Long bones are found in the limbs and have a shaft and expanded ends. Bone tissue is either compact or spongy and contains osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts that allow bone to
This document provides an overview of the skeletal and muscular systems. It begins by labeling the parts of a long bone, then describes the two groups that make up the skeletal system - the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, ribs, sternum, and vertebral column. It then details the specific bones that make up these areas. The appendicular skeleton attaches to the axial skeleton and includes the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. The document also outlines the functions of the skeletal system and describes the four types of bones. It defines anatomical terminology and discusses the roles of connective tissues like cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. Finally
The skeletal system provides structure and protection for the body. It is made of bones connected by ligaments at joints, and bone marrow inside bones produces blood cells. The skeleton changes over one's lifetime from a flexible newborn skeleton with over 300 bones to the 206 bone adult skeleton. Bones are constantly being built and repaired by osteoblasts and osteoclasts throughout life.
The document discusses the roles and structures of the musculoskeletal system. It covers how bones and joints provide movement, support, and protection by acting as levers and allowing certain motions at synovial joints. Muscles work in antagonistic pairs across joints to flex and extend. Muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils containing sarcomeres, which contract through the sliding of actin and myosin filaments when calcium ions bind tropomyosin and troponin.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and associated tissues that provide structure, protection, movement, and mineral storage. Bones are living tissues composed of cells, collagen fibers, and minerals. There are four types of bones - long, short, flat, and irregular - with different structures adapted to their functions. Bones develop through intramembranous or endochondral ossification and are remodeled throughout life by bone cells.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and joints which provide structure, protect organs, and enable movement. It includes elements like the skull, rib cage, backbone, and limbs. Joints are where two bones meet and are held together by ligaments, allowing movement except in the skull. There are different types of joints like hinge, ball-and-socket, and pivot joints. Muscles connect to bones via tendons and work with the skeletal system to produce movement, with some muscles being voluntary and others involuntary.
There are four main types of bones: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Long bones have a shaft and two articulating ends, examples being the femur and humerus. Short bones are cube-shaped like wrist and ankle bones. Flat bones are broad and thin, found in the skull, shoulder blades, ribs, and sternum. Irregular bones come in various shapes and sizes, like the patella. Bones are made up of cells, fibers, and extracellular matrix. They provide structure, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation to the body. Bone formation occurs through two processes - intramembranous ossification which forms flat bones, and endochondral oss
The skeletal system has several important functions including providing structure, protecting organs, allowing for movement, producing blood cells, and storing minerals. It is composed of 206 bones that are divided into the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs, and the appendicular skeleton which includes the limbs and their attachments. The bones come in various shapes and serve specific protective or movement-related roles throughout the body.
This document discusses the different types of muscle tissue, including skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. It focuses on the structure and function of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle is made up of parallel bundles of long multinucleated fibers that produce skeletal movement. Each muscle fiber is an individual muscle cell surrounded by the sarcolemma membrane with multiple oval nuclei placed peripherally. Skeletal muscle is connected to bone via tough tendons composed of dense collagen fibers. Fascia layers like the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium surround bundles and individual fibers of muscle.
The skeletal system includes bones and cartilage that provide structure, allow for movement, and protect organs. The medical specialty of orthopedics focuses on treating the skeleton and joints. Skeletal tissue includes cartilage and bone, which are types of dense connective tissue. Bones have important functions like support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell production. Bone is made up of osteogenic cells, osteoblasts that form bone, osteocytes embedded in bone matrix, and osteoclasts that resorb bone. There are different types of bones like long bones with a diaphysis, epiphyses, and metaphysis. Bone formation occurs through intramembranous ossification or endochondral ossification. Common bone
This document provides an overview of the muscular system, including the structure and function of muscles. It discusses the three main types of muscles - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac - and their characteristics. Skeletal muscles, also called voluntary muscles, are under conscious control and allow for movement. The major skeletal muscles and their actions are identified. The document also examines how muscles contract through isotonic, eccentric, and isometric contractions, and how muscle fibers and their fast-twitch and slow-twitch types relate to muscle performance and endurance.
This document discusses animal tissues, organs, and organ systems. It begins by explaining the potential of stem cells and the four major tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue. It then describes how tissues combine to form organs, and how organs interact in organ systems to perform functions like homeostasis. Key organ systems are identified like the integumentary, digestive, respiratory, circulatory, urinary and nervous systems. The role of these systems in maintaining homeostasis of processes like body temperature is explained through negative feedback loops involving sensory receptors, integrators and effectors.
There are two main types of computer graphics - raster (composed of pixels) and vector (composed of paths). Raster images are better known as bitmaps and use a grid of pixels, while vector graphics use mathematical relationships between points and paths. Bitmaps look jagged when enlarged but vectors remain smooth at any size. Anti-aliasing can make bitmaps appear smoother by applying subtle pixel transitions along edges. Vectors are best for illustrations and layouts while bitmaps are suited to photos with subtle shading details.
This document discusses the concept of a bill of rights, which is a list of fundamental rights that protects citizens from government overreach. It outlines different classes of rights, including natural rights, constitutional rights, and statutory rights. Constitutional rights are further divided into political rights, civil rights, social and economic rights, and rights of the accused. The document also examines the relationship between state authority and individual freedom, noting there can be conflicts between individual rights and group welfare that are resolved by the judiciary.
There are two main types of computer graphics - raster (composed of pixels) and vector (composed of paths). Raster images are better known as bitmaps and use a grid of pixels, while vector graphics use mathematical relationships between points and paths. Bitmaps look jagged when enlarged but vectors remain smooth at any size. Anti-aliasing can make bitmaps appear smoother by blending pixels along edges. Vectors are best for illustrations and layouts while bitmaps are suited to photos with subtle colors or shades.
This document provides an overview of how animals move through the skeletal and muscular systems. It discusses the three types of skeletons (hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton), focusing on the human skeletal system. It also describes the structure and function of bones, skeletal joints, and skeletal muscle. The key points are the sliding filament model of muscle contraction using actin and myosin, and how muscles interact with bones through tendons to generate movement.
Raster images are composed of pixels while vector images are composed of paths. Raster images appear jagged when enlarged but vector images remain smooth at any size. Anti-aliasing uses subtle pixel transitions to minimize the jagged effect in raster images. Vector images are mathematically defined so they appear smooth at any resolution or size. Resolution is measured in pixels per inch (PPI) or dots per inch (DPI) with higher resolution creating better image quality. Aspect ratio is the ratio of an image's width to its height. Common file formats include JPEG, GIF, TIFF, EPS and PDF. Color models like RGB and CMYK describe how colors are represented numerically. Adobe Photoshop is a popular image
There are two main types of computer graphics - raster (composed of pixels) and vector (composed of paths). Raster images are better known as bitmaps and use a grid of pixels, while vector graphics use mathematical relationships between points and paths. Bitmaps look jagged when enlarged but vectors remain smooth at any size. Anti-aliasing can make bitmaps appear smoother by applying subtle pixel transitions along edges. Vectors are best for illustrations and layouts while bitmaps are suited to photos with subtle shading details.
There are two main types of computer graphics - raster (composed of pixels) and vector (composed of paths). Raster images are better known as bitmaps and use a grid of pixels, while vector graphics use mathematical relationships between points and paths. Bitmaps look jagged when enlarged but vectors remain smooth at any size. Anti-aliasing can make bitmaps appear smoother by blending pixels along edges. Vectors are best for illustrations and layouts while bitmaps are suited to photos with subtle colors or shades.
The skeletal system provides structure, protection, movement and other essential functions for the body. There are various types of bones including long, short, flat and irregular bones. Bone structure consists of compact and spongy bone tissue with osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts regulating bone formation and resorption. Bones are formed through intramembranous or endochondral ossification. The muscular system allows for body movement through skeletal muscle contraction and relaxation via the sliding filament mechanism. Muscle fibers contain myofibrils with overlapping thick and thin filaments that shorten during contraction.
Bone tissue serves several important functions in the human body including support, protection, movement, mineral storage and blood cell production. The skeletal system is made up of 206 bones that are organized into the axial and appendicular skeleton. There are four main types of bone tissue - compact bone, spongy bone, cortical bone and trabecular bone - that are composed of bone cells embedded in a mineralized matrix. Bones grow in length through endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate and increase in thickness through periosteal bone formation. A complex process of bone remodeling maintains bone health through the balanced actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and associated tissues that provide structure, protection, movement, and mineral storage. Bones are living tissues composed of cells, collagen fibers, and minerals. There are four types of bones - long, short, flat, and irregular - with different structures adapted to their functions. Bones develop through intramembranous or endochondral ossification and are remodeled throughout life by bone cells.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and associated tissues that provide structure, support, protection, movement, and mineral storage. Bones are living organs composed of cells and an extracellular matrix. There are two main types of bones - compact bone, which forms the dense outer layer, and spongy bone, which forms the inner layer. The skeletal system develops through two main processes - intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
Bone tissue is a complex living tissue that is continuously remodeling itself through the breakdown of old bone and formation of new bone. It consists of several cell types within an extracellular matrix of collagen fibers and mineral salts. Bone provides structural support to the body, protects internal organs, assists in movement, stores minerals, produces blood cells, and stores fats. The continuous remodeling of bone tissue through the actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts allows bones to maintain their strength and repair damage.
The skeletal system has several important functions:
1. It provides structure and support for the body, protects internal organs, and allows for movement through muscle attachment points.
2. Bones store minerals like calcium and aid in mineral homeostasis. Certain bones also produce blood cells.
3. The skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. Bones are living tissues with osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. They have an extracellular matrix containing collagen and minerals like hydroxyapatite.
This document discusses skeletal physiology and contains sections on bone types, typical long bone structure, bone cells, homeostatic functions, bone development, bone healing, comparing bone and cartilage types, cartilage mechanisms, joint classification, and synovial joints. It provides detailed descriptions of bone anatomy and physiology, the roles of bones and cartilage, and how bones develop, break down, and heal. The information is presented through labeled sections and subsections explaining different skeletal structures and processes.
The skeletal system is composed of 206 bones that serve important biological and mechanical functions. The axial skeleton includes 80 bones that form the axis of the body and protect organs like the brain, while the appendicular skeleton has 126 bones that make up the limbs and their attachments. Bones are living organs composed of compact and spongy tissues, cells like osteoblasts and osteoclasts, and minerals including calcium that provide structure and strength. The skeleton supports the body, protects organs, allows for movement through leverage, and stores minerals and produces blood cells in the bone marrow. Bones are classified by their shapes including tubular, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.
This document provides an in-depth overview of the skeletal and muscular systems as they relate to analyzing human movement and developing conditioning programs for athletes. It examines the structure and functions of the skeletal system including bones, joints, and growth. It also explores the structure of synovial joints and the various movements they allow. The goal is to explain these systems and how knowledge of them can be applied to analyzing muscle actions and developing training programs.
The skeletal system consists of bones and cartilage which provide structure, protect organs, allow movement, store minerals, produce blood cells, and store fats. The skeleton is divided into the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum, and the appendicular skeleton including the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. Bones are made of organic and inorganic components and contain osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Joints connect bones and allow movement, with synovial joints providing the most mobility.
The document provides an overview of the skeletal and muscular systems. It discusses the bones and classification of bones, including long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. It also reviews the microscopic structure of bone. Additionally, it examines the three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle - and provides details on the structure, organization and sliding filament theory of contraction of skeletal muscle.
The skeletal system consists of bones and connective tissues that stabilize the bones. Bones have several important functions including supporting the body, protecting organs, allowing movement, storing minerals, and producing blood cells. The skeletal system includes long bones in the limbs, short bones in the wrists and ankles, flat bones like the skull, and irregularly shaped bones like vertebrae. Bones are made up of compact bone on the outside and spongy bone on the inside, with bone marrow and minerals providing structure and strength.
The document provides an overview of bone tissue, including its histology, development, shapes, and functions. Bone is a type of connective tissue composed of cells and an organic/inorganic matrix. There are four main types of bone cells that form or break down bone tissue through intricate biological processes. The skeletal system performs critical roles like supporting the body, protecting organs, enabling movement, and maintaining mineral balances in the blood.
The document provides an overview of the skeletal system. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are to enumerate the roles and parts of the skeletal system, explain bone formation and aging, and discuss the importance of the skeletal system. It then details the various functions of the skeletal system including protection, movement, mineral storage, and sound transduction. It describes the general features of bones such as their parts, cells, markings and ossification. It also discusses bone remodeling, repair, and the types of bones. Finally, it examines the effects of aging on the skeletal system.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the musculoskeletal system. It describes how the musculoskeletal system provides support, protection, and motion through connective tissues like tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. It also discusses bones, muscles, and joints and how they work together through connective tissues to enable movement and support for the body.
This document provides an overview of joint structure and function. It defines a joint and lists the intra-articular and extra-articular structures. It describes the basic principles of joint design and complexity matching function. It explains Wolff's law relating bone structure to function. It details the cellular and extracellular components of connective tissue, including collagen and elastin fibers. Finally, it discusses joint classification, motions, and the response of connective tissues to loads.
The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons and muscles, which form a framework for the body. Tendons, ligaments and fibrous tissue bind the structures together to create stability, with ligaments connecting bone to bone, and tendons connecting muscle to bone.
The musculoskeletal system Anatomy and physiologykajal chandel
The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons and muscles, which form a framework for the body. Tendons, ligaments and fibrous tissue bind the structures together to create stability, with ligaments connecting bone to bone, and tendons connecting muscle to bone.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and associated tissues that perform several essential functions:
1. Support - Bones provide structural support for the body and protection for internal organs.
2. Movement - Skeletal muscles use bones as levers to enable movement of the body.
3. Mineral storage - Bones store minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
There are over 200 bones in the human body that are classified as long, short, flat, or irregular. Bones are living tissues composed of cells like osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts embedded in an organic bone matrix and inorganic minerals. Compact bone forms the dense outer layer while spongy bone composes the inner layer. Long bones have
Bone is a complex living tissue that provides structure, protection, and support. There are several types of bone tissue - cortical bone is dense and hard, forming the outer shell, while cancellous bone is spongy and light. Bones also contain bone marrow, which produces blood cells. Bones are made of an organic collagen matrix and inorganic hydroxyapatite crystals. They contain various bone cells that maintain the balance between bone formation and resorption. Bones come in different shapes suited to their functions, including long bones in the arms and legs, flat bones in the skull, and irregularly shaped bones.
This document provides an overview of solving systems of linear equations with two or three variables. It defines key terms like systems, solutions, and consistent/inconsistent equations. It describes both graphical and algebraic methods. The algebraic methods covered are elimination, substitution, and Cramer's rule. Examples are provided to illustrate each method. Elimination and back substitution are also described as methods for solving three variable systems algebraically.
The document describes the anatomy and physiology of the skeletal and muscular systems. It includes diagrams of the bones that make up the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, shoulder girdle, pelvis, and limbs. Additional diagrams show the microscopic structure of compact and spongy bone tissue, as well as the organization of skeletal muscles from bundles of fibers to individual sarcomeres. The text also outlines three energy pathways in muscle contraction and illustrates twitch and sustained muscle contractions in response to electrical stimulation.
This document provides an outline of key topics in human reproduction and development, including:
1) The stages of reproduction and development that occur in animals, from fertilization to the formation of specialized tissues and organs.
2) An overview of the male and female reproductive systems and how eggs and sperm are formed.
3) The process of pregnancy, from fertilization through fetal development and birth.
4) Issues related to fertility, contraception, and prenatal development.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system and hormones. It discusses how hormones are secreted by endocrine glands and target cells through receptors to regulate processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Key glands discussed include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, pancreas, adrenal glands, and gonads. The roles of hormones in controlling blood glucose levels, stress response, and sexual development are summarized. The document also notes concerns about endocrine disrupting chemicals in the environment and their potential impacts on health.
This document discusses the nervous system and senses. It begins by covering neurons, how they communicate via action potentials and chemical synapses, and examples of neurotransmitters. It then describes the central and peripheral nervous systems, including structures like the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The senses are also outlined, including sensory receptors for sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, and balance. In summary, the document provides an overview of the nervous system, neuronal communication, and the different human senses.
This document discusses animal tissues and organ systems. It begins by defining key terms like tissue, organ, organ system, and homeostasis. The four main tissue types - epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue - are described. An organ contains multiple tissue types and works with other organs in organ systems to maintain homeostasis. Examples of organ systems that interact to regulate internal conditions like temperature are provided. The largest organ, the skin, is also overviewed in detail. Potential applications of stem cell research to regenerate tissues are noted.
1. Plants use phytoremediation to remove toxic chemicals from soil and water. Poplar trees are used to clean up a contaminated site in Maryland by absorbing chemicals like TCE.
2. Plant bodies are organized into three tissue systems - ground, vascular, and dermal tissues. Vascular tissues transport water and nutrients throughout the plant via xylem and phloem.
3. Primary shoots and roots carry out photosynthesis, water and nutrient transport, and food storage. Leaves are adapted for light capture and gas exchange while roots absorb water and minerals.
The document defines key concepts related to constitutions including:
1) A constitution establishes the fundamental powers and principles that govern a nation and defines how these powers are distributed among branches of government.
2) Constitutional law deals with the nature, formation, amendment, and interpretation of constitutions.
3) Constitutions can be written or unwritten, rigid or flexible depending on their origin and process for amendment.
4) An ideal written constitution is brief, broad, and definite while establishing the structure of government, individual liberties, and national sovereignty.
Political science is the study of the state, government, and politics. It examines how individuals associate into political communities and how those communities are governed. The scope of political science includes political theory, public law, and public administration. It is interrelated with other social sciences like history, economics, geography, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. The goals of studying political science include gaining knowledge and understanding of citizenship, government, and liberal education. A state is defined as a political community occupying a territory with its own government and sovereignty. States are distinguished from nations and governments. Governments are necessary to advance public welfare and consequences arise in their absence. Forms of government vary based on who exercises sovereign power and the relationship between branches
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Novas diretrizes da OMS para os cuidados perinatais de mais qualidade
Im chapter20
1. 20
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HOW ANIMALS MOVE
Chapter Outline
IMPACTS/ISSUES: BULKING UP MUSCLES Getting Energy for Contraction
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM PROPERTIES OF WHOLE MUSCLES
Types of Skeletons Muscle Tension
The Human Skeleton Diseases and Disorders Affecting Muscle
Bone Structure and Function Contraction
Where Bones Meet—Skeletal Joints IMPACTS/ISSUES REVISITED
HOW BONES AND MUSCLES INTERACT SUMMARY
SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE AND SELF-QUIZ
FUNCTION CRITICAL THINKING
Sliding-Filament Model for Contraction
Objectives
• Explain the process by which muscles become larger and stronger.
• Name the hormones that affect muscle mass.
• Describe how a lack of myostatin affects muscle mass.
• Name the three types of skeletons, and describe how they work.
• List a representative organism for each skeleton type.
• List the component bones that comprise the following areas:
o Skull
o Pectoral girdle
o Vertebral column
o Upper limb bones
o Pelvic girdle
o Lower limb bones
• Compare and contrast the structure and function of compact bone and spongy bone.
• Know the location and function of red marrow and yellow marrow.
• Describe the matrix arrangement of compact bone.
• Understand the mineral deposition and removal of calcium with respect to the bones.
How Animals Move 175
2. • List functions of calcium other than providing a substrate for bones.
• Define osteoporosis.
• Compare and contrast the structure and function of cartilaginous joints, fibrous joints, and
synovial joints.
• Name the most common joint injury in humans.
• Explain how osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis are different.
• Explain how bones and muscles are attached to each other.
• Explain how muscles can pull but not push bones.
• Be able to make a simple diagram of a muscle fiber, a myofibril, and a sarcomere.
• Make a simple drawing showing the arrangement of myosin and actin in a myofibril.
• Understand the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction.
• Describe the specific action of myosin in muscle contraction.
• Describe the specific action of actin in muscle contraction.
• Explain the role of ATP in muscle contraction.
• Define motor unit and name approximate numbers of muscle fibers for sample motor units.
• Define muscle tension.
• Define muscle fatigue.
• Explain the disease process called muscular dystrophy.
• Describe the effects of Clostridium tetani on skeletal muscle.
Key Terms
endoskeleton joint sarcomere
exoskeleton ligament tendon
hydrostatic skeleton red marrow muscle fatigue
intervertebral disk sprain motor unit
vertebrae spongy bone muscle tension
arthritis synovial joint muscle twitch
cartilaginous joint yellow marrow sarcoplasmic reticulum
compact bone actin sliding-filament model
dislocation myofibrils muscle fatigue
fibrous joint myosin
Lecture Outline
20.1 Impacts/Issues: Bulking up Muscles
A. Muscles become larger by adding more protein to existing cells.
1. Muscle cells in adults do not divide (like neurons).
2. Exercise favors synthesis of more proteins in muscles.
3. The regulatory protein myostatin slows production of muscle protein.
4. Muscles become excessively large and bulky in individuals lacking myostatin.
5. Myostatin blockers may be useful in treating muscle wasting diseases.
6. Myostatin-blockers are being sold in nutritional supplements to body builders and
athletes.
176 Chapter Twenty
3. 20.2 The Skeletal System
A. Types of skeletons
1. Hydrostatic skeletons
a. fluid-filled, internal chambers
b. found in soft bodied organisms such as earthworms
How Animals Move 177
4. 2. Exoskeletons
a. shell, cuticle, or other hard external body part
b. insects such as flies exert internal muscles against inside of exoskeleton
3. Endoskeleton
a. internal framework of hardened elements to which muscles attach
b. seen in all vertebrates including humans
B. The human skeleton
1. The skull consists of flattened cranial bones and facial bones.
2. The vertebral column consists of 23 vertebrae and intervertebral disks made of
cartilage.
3. The rib cage attaches to the vertebral column and wraps around in front to connect to
the sternum (forms a protective cage around the heart and lungs).
4. The pectoral girdle consists of the scapula and clavicle.
5. The upper limb bones are the humerus, radius, ulna, and hand and finger bones.
6. The pelvic girdle consists of six fused bones, three on each side.
7. The lower limb bones are the femur, fibula, tibia, and ankle foot and toe bones.
C. Bone structure and function
1. Bones maintain posture and change the orientation of the body and parts.
2. They surround and protect vital organs.
3. They are sites for blood cell formation.
4. They are reservoirs for calcium and phosphorus ions.
5. Compact bone
a. Weight bearing parts of bones are compact.
b. Thin, concentric layers of calcium matrix surround canals for blood and nerves.
6. Spongy bone
a. Internal shaft and bone ends are spongy (have internal spaces).
b. Red marrow in spongy bone is site of blood cell formation.
c. Yellow marrow is mostly fat cells, but can convert to red marrow (located in
hollow cavity in large bones).
7. Calcium and phosphorus deposition and removal
a. Calcium and phosphorus ions are continually being removed from and deposited
into bones.
b. Calcium ions participate in nerve and muscle cell actions.
c. Until about age 24, more bone is deposited than removed.
d. After age 24, deposition slows.
e. Osteoporosis is a condition in which bone loss outpaces bone formation.
f. Dietary intake of vitamin D and calcium are important in maintaining bone
density.
D. Where bones meet – skeletal joints
1. Fibrous joints – connective tissue holds bones tightly in place.
a. cranial and facial bones
2. Cartilaginous joints – disks or pads provide a flexible connection.
a. vertebrae
b. ribs
3. Synovial joints – fluid filled space contains bone ends that are coated in connective
tissue.
178 Chapter Twenty
5. a. hip, knee, shoulder, elbow, wrist
4. Joint injuries
a. Sprains occur when ligaments overstretch or tear.
b. Torn ligaments (such as cruciate) may require surgery.
c. Dislocations occur when bone ends move out of place.
d. Arthritis is the chronic inflammation of a joint.
e. Osteoarthritis results from the wearing down of joints.
f. Rheumatoid arthritis occurs because the immune system attacks the joints.
20.3 How Bones and Muscles Interact
A. Bones and skeletal muscles interact to provide movement.
1. Tendons that attach muscles to bones are extensions of the fibrous connective tissue
that envelopes entire muscles.
2. Muscles connect to bones near a fixed point.
3. The bicep and tricep muscles pull the forearm in opposite directions, relative to the
humerus.
4. Muscles work in opposing pairs to move a bone or joint.
5. Cardiac muscle is present only in the heart, and smooth muscle in internal organs.
20.4 Skeletal Muscles Structure and Function
A. Skeletal muscles consist of many muscle fibers (muscle cells).
B. Muscle fibers consist of many myofibrils.
C. Myofibrils consist of sarcomeres.
1. Sarcomeres are basic units of contraction.
a. Actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick filament) are arranged in sections that allow
movement and shortening.
2. Muscle bundles, muscle fibers, myofibrils, and thin and thick filaments are all
arranged in the same parallel orientation.
D. How a muscle contracts
1. Actin and myosin filaments are close, but not interacting in the resting state.
2. ATP binds to a myosin head and allows it to bend and bind to a neighboring actin
filament.
3. Once actin and myosin are bound together, the myosin head tilts toward the center of
the sarcomere, and causes the actin to slide toward the center.
4. ADP and phosphate are now released.
5. New ATP is formed, and the myosin head releases from the actin and attaches to a
new binding site.
6. The process repeats itself.
E. Getting energy for contraction
1. ATP is the first energy source muscles use; it lasts only a few seconds.
2. Creatine phosphate store allows more ATP production that lasts another 5 to 10
seconds.
3. Aerobic respiration now kicks in and produces ATP which produces the needed
energy for about another five to ten minutes of activity.
4. Next, glucose and fatty acids break down to provide energy.
5. Lastly, fatty acids provide the needed energy.
How Animals Move 179
6. 6. Lactate production increases with exercise but does not yield much ATP.
20.5 Properties of Whole Muscles
A. Muscle tension
1. A motor neuron and the muscle fiber it controls is called a motor unit.
2. Brief stimulation causes contraction and relaxation called a twitch.
3. Continuous stimulation causes a sustained contraction.
180 Chapter Twenty
7. 4. The number of muscle fibers controlled by a neuron varies.
a. Small, fine movements require a small ratio of neurons to muscle fibers (1:5 in the
eye).
b. Larger muscles have as many as 700 muscle fibers per motor unit.
5. Muscle tension is the mechanical force exerted by a muscle on an object.
6. When muscle tension exceeds an opposing force, a stimulated muscle shortens.
7. Isometrically contracting muscles develop tension but cannot shorten.
8. Isotonically contracting muscles shorten and move a load.
9. Muscle fatigue is a decrease in the muscle’s ability to generate force.
10. Muscles begin to shrink with age.
a. The number of muscle fibers declines.
b. Existing muscle fibers respond more slowly to exercise.
B. Impaired muscle contraction
1. Muscular dystrophies are genetic diseases in which skeletal muscles progressively
weaken.
a. Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy is a sex-linked trait and is expressed more often in
males.
2. Some muscle disorders occur because neurons cannot signal muscles to contract.
a. Poliovirus infects and kills motor neurons.
b. Poliovirus has been essentially eradicated in the United States.
3. Clostridium tetani is a common soil bacteria that causes motor neurons to continuously
contract, producing tetanus.
a. Afflicted individuals die when breathing muscles become locked.
4. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) kills motor neurons.
20.6 Impacts/Issues Revisited: Bulking Up Muscles
A. Drugs that inhibit myostatin may help with muscle disorders.
B. Research on mice has been encouraging.
C. A drawback to the research has been a finding of very small, stiff, and easily torn tendons.
How Animals Move 181